<p>The Iguazu Falls, Iguazú Falls, Iguassu Falls, or Iguaçu Falls  are waterfalls of the Iguazu River on the border of the Argentine province of Misiones and the Brazilian state of Paraná. They are the largest waterfalls system in the world. The falls divide the river into the upper and lower Iguazu. The Iguazu River rises near the city of Curitiba. For most of its course, the river flows through Brazil; however, most of the falls are on the Argentine side. Below its confluence with the San Antonio River, the Iguazu River forms the boundary between Argentina and Brazil.</p><br>
<p>The name "Iguazú" comes from the Guarani or Tupi words "y", meaning "water", and "ûasú ", meaning "big". Legend has it that a deity planned to marry a beautiful woman named Naipí, who fled with her mortal lover Tarobá in a canoe. In a rage, the deity sliced the river, creating the waterfalls and condemning the lovers to an eternal fall. The first European to record the existence of the falls was the Spanish conquistador Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca in 1541.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Iguazu Falls are located where the Iguazu River tumbles over the edge of the Paraná Plateau, 23 km upriver from the Iguazus confluence with the Paraná River. Numerous islands along the 2.7 km edge divide the falls into many separate waterfalls and cataracts, varying between 60 to 82 m high. The number of these smaller waterfalls fluctuates from 150 to 300, depending on the water level. Approximately half of the rivers flow falls into a long and narrow chasm called the Devils Throat (Garganta del Diablo in Spanish or Garganta do Diabo in Portuguese). The Devils Throat is U-shaped, 82x150x700 m. Placenames have been given also to many other smaller falls, such as San Martín Falls, Bossetti Falls, and many others.</p><br>
<p>About 900 m of the 2.7 km length does not have water flowing over it. The edge of the basalt cap recedes by 3 mm per year. The water of the lower Iguazu collects in a canyon that drains into the Paraná River, a short distance downstream from the Itaipu Dam. The junction of the water flows marks the border between Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay. There are points in the cities of Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, Puerto Iguazú, Argentina, and Ciudad del Este, Paraguay, which have access to the Iguazu River, where the borders of all three nations may be seen, a popular tourist attraction for visitors to the three cities.</p><br>
<h2>Distribution of the falls between Argentina and Brazil</h2><br>
<p>The Iguazu Falls are arranged in a way that resembles a reversed letter "J". The border between Brazil and Argentina runs through the Devil&#39;s Throat. On the right bank is the Brazilian territory, which has just over 20% of the jumps of these falls, and the left side jumps are Argentine, which make up almost 80% of the falls.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>There are two international airports close to Iguazú Falls: the Argentine Cataratas del Iguazú International Airport (IGR) and the Brazilian Foz do Iguaçu International Airport (IGU). Argentinas airport is 25 km from the city of Iguazu, but is closer to the falls hotels than its Brazilian counterpart. There are bus and taxi services from and to the Airport-Falls. Brazils airport is between Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, and the falls. Aerolíneas Argentinas and LATAM Argentina have direct flights from Buenos Aires to Iguazu International Airport Krause. Azul, GOL, and LATAM Brasil offer services from main Brazilian cities to Foz do Iguaçu.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>The falls may be reached from two main towns, with one on either side of the falls: Puerto Iguazú in Argentina and Foz do Iguaçu in Brazil, as well as from Ciudad del Este, Paraguay, on the other side of the Paraná river from Foz do Iguaçu. The falls are shared by the Iguazú National Park (Argentina) and Iguaçu National Park (Brazil). The two parks were designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1984 and 1987, respectively.</p><br>
<p>The first proposal for a Brazilian national park aimed at providing a pristine environment to "future generations", just as "it had been created by God" and endowed with "all possible preservation, from the beautiful to the sublime, from the picturesque to the awesome" and "an unmatched flora" located in the "magnificent Iguaçú waterfalls". These were the words used by André Rebouças, an engineer, in his book "Provinces of Paraná, Railways to Mato Grosso and Bolivia", which started up the campaign aimed at preserving the Iguaçu Falls in 1876. At this time, Yellowstone National Park in the USA, the first national park in the world, was four years old.</p><br>
<p>On the Brazilian side, there is a walkway along the canyon with an extension to the lower base of Devil&#39;s Throat. Helicopter rides offering aerial views of the falls have been available from Brazil, however, Argentina has prohibited such helicopter tours because of the adverse environmental impact on the flora and fauna of the falls. From Foz do Iguaçu airport, the park may be reached by taking a taxi or bus to the entrance of the park. There is an entrance fee to the park on both sides. Once inside, free and frequent buses are provided to various points within the park. The town of Foz do Iguaçu is approximately 20 km away, and the airport is between the park and the town.</p><br>
<p>The Argentine access, across the forest, is by a Rainforest Ecological Train very similar to the one in Disneys Animal Kingdom. The train brings visitors to the entrance of Devils Throat, as well as the upper and lower trails. The Paseo Garganta del Diablo is a 1 km trail that brings visitors directly over the falls of Devil&#39;s Throat, the highest and deepest of the falls. Other walkways allow access to the elongated stretch of falls across the forest on the Argentine side and to the boats that connect to San Martin Island. Also on the Argentine side, there are inflatable boat services that take visitors very close to the falls.</p><br>
<p>The Brazilian transportation system aims at allowing the increase in the number of visitors, while reducing the adverse environmental impact, through an increase in the average number of passengers per vehicle inside the park. The new transportation system has 72-passenger capacity, panoramic-view, double-deck buses. The upper deck is open, which enables visitors a broad view of the flora and fauna during the trip to the falls. The bus combustion systems are in compliance with the CONAMA (phase IV) and EURO (phase II) emissions and noise requirements. The reduction in the number of vehicles, of noise levels, and speed, is enabling tourists to observe increasing numbers of wild animals along the route. Each bus has an exclusive paint scheme, representing some of the most common wild animals found in the Iguaçú National Park, including the spotted jaguars, butterflies, raccoons, prego monkeys, coral snakes, toucans, parrots, and yellow breasted caimans.</p><br>
<h2>Comparisons to other notable falls</h2><br>
<p>Upon seeing Iguazu, the United States First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt reportedly exclaimed "Poor Niagara!" (which, at 50 m or 165 feet, are a third shorter). Often Iguazu also is compared with Victoria Falls in Southern Africa, which separates Zambia and Zimbabwe. Iguazu is wider, but because it is split into approximately 275 discrete falls and large islands, Victoria has the largest curtain of water in the world, at more than 1,600 m wide and over 100 m in height (in low flow Victoria is split into five by islands; in high flow it may be uninterrupted). The only wider falls are extremely large rapid-like falls, such as the Boyoma Falls (Stanley Falls).</p><br>
<p>With the flooding of the Guaíra Falls in 1982, Iguazu currently has the sixth-greatest average annual flow of any waterfall in the world, following number five Niagara, with an average rate of 1,746 m3/s. Its maximum recorded flow was 45,700 m3/s in 9 June 2014. By comparison, the average flow of Niagara Falls is 2,400 m3/s, with a maximum recorded flow of 8,300 m3/s. The average flow at Victoria Falls is 1,088 m3/s, with a maximum recorded flow of 7,100 m3/s.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The Iguazu Falls experience a humid subtropical climate (Cfa, according to the Köppen climate classification) with abundant precipitation and high temperatures year-round. During the summer of 2006, a severe drought caused the Iguazu River to become diminished, reducing the amount of water flowing over the falls to 300 m3/s until early December. This was unusual, as dry periods normally last only a few weeks.</p><br>
<h2>Portrayals in film</h2><br>
<p>Iguazu Falls have been featured in several TV shows and movies, including:</p><br>
<p>Myra  was an ancient Greek town in Lycia where the small town of Kale  is today, in the present-day Antalya Province of Turkey. It was on the river Myros , in the fertile alluvial plain between Alaca Dağ, the Massikytos range and the Aegean Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Historical evidence</h2><br>
<p>Although some scholars equate Myra with the town Mira in Arzawa, there is no proof for the connection. There is no substantiated written reference for Myra before it was listed as a member of the Lycian alliance (168 BC – AD 43); according to Strabo (14:665) it was one of the largest towns of the alliance.</p><br>
<p>The Greek citizens worshipped Artemis Eleutheria, who was the protective goddess of the town. Zeus, Athena and Tyche were venerated as well.</p><br>
<p>The ruins of the Lycian and Roman town are mostly covered by alluvial silts. The Acropolis on the Demre-plateau, the Roman theatre and the Roman baths (eski hamam) have been partly excavated. The semi-circular theater was destroyed in an earthquake in 141, but rebuilt afterwards.</p><br>
<p>There are two necropoleis of Lycian rock-cut tombs in the form of temple fronts carved into the vertical faces of cliffs at Myra: the river necropolis and the ocean necropolis. The ocean necropolis is just northwest of the theater. The best-known tomb in the river necropolis, 1.5 km up the Demre Cayi from the theater, is the "Lion&#39;s tomb", also called the "Painted Tomb". When the traveller Charles Fellows saw the tombs in 1840 he found them still colorfully painted red, yellow and blue.</p><br>
<p>Andriake was the harbour of Myra in classical times, but silted up later on. The main structure there surviving to the present day is a granary (horrea) built during the reign of the Roman emperor Hadrian (117–138 CE). Beside this granary is a large heap of Murex shells, evidence that Andriake had an ongoing operation for the production of purple dye.</p><br>
<p>Excavations have been carried out at Andriake since 2009. The granary was turned into the Museum of Lycian Civilizations. The granary has seven rooms and measures 56 meters long and 32 meters wide. Artifacts found during the excavations in the Lycian League were placed in the museum. The structures in the Harbor Bazaar as well as the agora, synagogue and a six-meter deep, 24-meter long and 12-meter wide cistern were restored. A 16-meter long Roman-era boat, a crane and a cargo car were placed in front of the museum.</p><br>
<h2>New Testament</h2><br>
<p>The author of the Acts of the Apostles (probably Luke the Evangelist) and Paul the Apostle changed ships here during their journey from Caesarea to Rome for Pauls trial, arriving in a coastal trading vessel and changing to a sea-faring skiff secured by the Roman centurion responsible for Pauls transportation to Rome.</p><br>
<h2>Bishopric</h2><br>
<p>The Acta Pauli probably testify to the existence of a Christian community at Myra in the 2nd century. Lequien opens his list of the bishops of this city with St. Nicander, martyred under Domitian in 95, who, according to the Greek Menologion, was ordained bishop by Saint Titus. In 325, Lycia again became a Roman province distinct from that of Pamphylia, with Myra as its capital. Ecclesiastically, it thus became the metropolitan see of the province. The bishop of Myra at that time was Saint Nicholas. The 6th-century Index of Theodorus Lector is the first document that lists him among the fathers of the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Many other bishops of Myra are named in extant documents, including Petrus, the author of theological works in defence of the Council of Chalcedon quoted by Saint Sophronius of Jerusalem and by Photius (Bibliotheca, Codex 23). Theodorus and Nicolaus were both at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, the former recanting his previous iconoclast position, the latter being the Catholic bishop whom the iconoclasts had expelled. The Notitia Episcopatuum of Pseudo-Epiphanius, composed in about 640 under the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, reports that Myra at that time had 36 suffragan sees. The early 10th-century Notitia attributed to Emperor Leo VI the Wise lists only 33.</p><br>
<p>Myra is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see both in general and as a bishopric of the Melkite Catholic Church in particular. While Latin bishops are no longer appointed to this Eastern titular see, Melkite bishops are.</p><br>
<h2>Siege of 809</h2><br>
<p>After a siege in 809, Myra fell to Abbasid troops under Caliph Harun al-Rashid. Early in the reign of Alexius I Comnenus (ruled between 1081 and 1118), Myra was again overtaken by Islamic invaders, this time the Seljuk Turks. In the confusion, sailors from Bari in Italy seized the relics of Saint Nicholas, over the objections of the monks caring for them, and spirited the remains away to Bari, where they arrived on May 9, 1087, and soon brought that city visitors making pilgrimage to Saint Nicholas.</p><br>
<h2>Church of St. Nicholas at Myra</h2><br>
<p>The earliest church of St. Nicholas at Myra was built in the 6th century. The present-day church was constructed mainly from the 8th century onward; a monastery was added in the second half of the 11th century.</p><br>
<p>In 1863, Tsar Alexander II of Russia purchased the building and began restoration, but the work was never finished. In 1963 the eastern and southern sides of the church were excavated. In 1968 the former confessio (tomb) of St. Nicholas was roofed over.</p><br>
<p>The floor of the church is made of opus sectile, a mosaic of coloured marble, and there are some remains of frescoes on the walls. An ancient Greek marble sarcophagus had been reused to bury the Saint; but his bones were stolen in 1087 by merchants from Bari, and are now held in the cathedral of that city.</p><br>
<p>The church is currently undergoing restoration. In 2007 the Turkish Ministry of Culture gave permission for the Divine Liturgy to be celebrated in the church for the first time in centuries. On 6 December 2011 Metropolitan Chrysostomos, who has the title of Myra, accordingly officiated.</p><br>
<p>Leptis Magna  was a prominent city in Roman Libya. Originally a Berber and Punic foundation, it was greatly expanded under emperor Septimius Severus , who was a native of the city.</p><br>
<p>Legio III Augusta was stationed here to defend the city against Berber incursions, and after the legion&#39;s dissolution under Gordian III in 238, the city was increasingly open to raids in the later part of the 3rd century. Diocletian re-instated the city as provincial capital, and the city grew again in prosperity until it fell to the Vandals in 439. It was re-incorporated into the Eastern Empire in 533, but continued to be plagued by Berber raids and never recovered its former importance.</p><br>
<p>It fell to the Muslim invasion in c. 647 and was abandoned.</p><br>
<p>The ruins of Leptis Magna are located in Khoms, Libya, 130 km east of Tripoli, on the coast where the Wadi Lebda meets the sea. The site is one of best preserved Roman ruins in the Mediterranean.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The Latin name was Lepcis Magna (also spelled Leptis in some inscriptions; also Leptimagnensis Civitas, adjective Leptitanos, Leptitanus)</p><br>
<p>The Greek name was Λέπτις μεγάλη Leptis megale or Νεάπολις Neapolis. The city was called "Greater" (magna, he megale) in contrast with Leptis Parva in modern-day Tunisia.</p><br>
<p>The Neo-Punic (Roman era) name is recorded as lpqy (or &#39;-lpqy, with article).</p><br>
<p>The name appears to be Semitic in origin, tentatively connected to the Arabic root lfq "to fabricate, piece together", taken to refer to the foundation or construction of the city.</p><br>
<p>The modern Arabic name is لَبْدَة Labdah.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Berber and Punic city was founded in the second half of the 7th century BC. Little is known about the old city, but it appears to have been powerful enough to repel Dorieus&#39; attempt to establish a Greek colony nearby in c. 515 BC.</p><br>
<p>A 4th to 3rd century BC necropolis was found under the Roman theatre.</p><br>
<p>It nominally remained part of Carthage&#39;s dominions until the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BC and then became part of the Roman Republic, although from about 111 BC onward, it was for all intents and purposes an independent city.</p><br>
<p>The city depended primarily on the fertility of its surrounding farmland, where many olive-presses have been excavated.</p><br>
<p>As early as 46 BC, its olive oil production was of such an extent that the city was levied by Caesar with a tax of three million pounds of oil annually.</p><br>
<p>The Roman Republic sent some colonists together with a small garrison in order to control the city. Since then the city started to grow and was even allowed to create its own money (coins).</p><br>
<p>Soon Italian merchants settled in the city and started a profitable commerce with the Libyan interior.</p><br>
<p>Leptis Magna remained as such until the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius, when the city and the surrounding area were formally incorporated into the empire as part of the province of Africa. It soon became one of the leading cities of Roman Africa and a major trading post. The city grew rapidly under Roman administration. During the reign of Nero an amphitheatre was constructed. The settlement was elevated to municipium in AD 64/5 and to colonia under Trajan (r. 98 –117)</p><br>
<p>Leptis achieved its greatest prominence beginning in AD 193, as the hometown of emperor Septimius Severus.</p><br>
<p>Septimius favored his hometown above all other provincial cities, and the buildings and wealth he lavished on it made Leptis Magna the third-most important city in Africa, rivaling Carthage and Alexandria. In AD 205, he and the imperial family visited the city and received great honors.</p><br>
<p>Among the changes that Severus introduced were to create a magnificent new forum and to rebuild the docks. The natural harbour had a tendency to silt up, but the Severan changes made this worse, and the eastern wharves are extremely well preserved, since they were scarcely used.</p><br>
<p>Leptis over-extended itself at this period. During the Crisis of the 3rd Century, when trade declined precipitously, Leptis Magna&#39;s importance also fell into a decline, and by the middle of the 4th century, even before it was completely devastated by the 365 tsunami, large parts of the city had been abandoned. Ammianus Marcellinus recounts that the crisis was worsened by a corrupt Roman governor named Romanus during a major tribal raid who demanded bribes to protect the city. The ruined city could not pay these and complained to the emperor Valentinian I. Romanus then bribed people at court and arranged for the Leptan envoys to be punished "for bringing false accusations". It enjoyed a minor renaissance beginning in the reign of the emperor Theodosius I.</p><br>
<p>In 439, Leptis Magna and the rest of the cities of Tripolitania fell under the control of the Vandals when their king, Gaiseric, captured Carthage from the Romans and made it his capital. Unfortunately for the future of Leptis Magna, Gaiseric ordered the city&#39;s walls demolished so as to dissuade its people from rebelling against Vandal rule. The people of Leptis and the Vandals both paid a heavy price for this in AD 523 when a group of Berber raiders sacked the city.</p><br>
<p>Belisarius recaptured Leptis Magna in the name of Rome ten years later, and in 533/4 it was re-incorporated into the empire.</p><br>
<p>Leptis became a provincial capital of the Eastern Empire, but never recovered from the destruction wreaked upon it by the Berbers.</p><br>
<p>In 544, under the prefecture of Sergius, the city came under intensified attack of Berber tribes, and after some successes, Sergius was reduced to retreating into the city, with the Leuathae tribal confederation camped outside the gate demanding payments. Sergius admitted eighty deputies into the city to present their demands, but when Sergius moved to leave the conference he was detained by the robe by one deputy and crowded by others. This provoked an officer of the prefect&#39;s guard to kill the deputy laying hands on the prefect, which resulted in a general massacre. The Berbers reacted with an all-out attack and Sergius was eventually forced to abandon Leptis and retreat to Carthage.</p><br>
<p>By the 6th century, the city was fully Christianised. During the decade 565–578 AD Christian missionaries from Leptis Magna even began to move once more among the Berber tribes as far south as the Fezzan in the Libyan desert and converted the Garamantes.</p><br>
<p>Numerous new churches were built in the 6th century, but the city continued to decline, and by the time of the Arab conquest c. 647 the city was mostly abandoned except for a Byzantine garrison force and a population of less than 1,000 inhabitants. Under Arab domination Leptis disappeared: by the 10th century the city was forgotten and fully covered by sand.</p><br>
<h2>Excavation and preservation</h2><br>
<p>Today, the site of Leptis Magna is the site of some of the most impressive ruins of the Roman period.</p><br>
<p>Part of an ancient temple was brought from Leptis Magna to the British Museum in 1816 and installed at the Fort Belvedere royal residence in England in 1826. It now lies in part of Windsor Great Park. The ruins are located between the south shore of Virginia Water and Blacknest Road close to the junction with the A30 London Road and Wentworth Drive.</p><br>
<p>When Italians conquered Italian Libya in the early 20th century, they dedicated huge efforts to the rediscovery of Leptis Magna. In the early 1930s Italian archeological research was able to show again the buried remains of nearly all the city.</p><br>
<h3>2005 discoveries</h3><br>
<p>In June 2005, it was revealed that archaeologists from the University of Hamburg had been working along the coast of Libya when they uncovered a 30 ft length of five colourful mosaics created during the 1st or 2nd century. The mosaics show with exceptional clarity depictions of a warrior in combat with a deer, four young men wrestling a wild bull to the ground, and a gladiator resting in a state of fatigue and staring at his slain opponent. The mosaics decorated the walls of a cold plunge pool in a bath house within a Roman villa at Wadi Lebda in Leptis Magna. The gladiator mosaic is noted by scholars as one of the finest examples of representational mosaic art ever seen—a "masterpiece comparable in quality with the Alexander Mosaic in Pompeii." The mosaics were originally discovered in the year 2000 but were kept secret in order to avoid looting. They are currently on display in the Leptis Magna Museum.</p><br>
<h3>In the 2011 Revolution</h3><br>
<p>There were reports that Leptis Magna was used as a cover for tanks and military vehicles by pro-Gaddafi forces during the 2011 Libyan civil war. When asked about the possibility of conducting an air-strike on the historic site, NATO refused to rule out the possibility of such an action saying that it had not been able to confirm the rebels&#39; report that weapons were being hidden at the location.</p><br>
<p>Marathon  is a town in Greece, the site of the battle of Marathon in 490 BC, in which the heavily outnumbered Athenian army defeated the Persians. The tumulus or burial mound  of the 192 Athenian dead, also called the "Soros", which was erected near the battlefield, remains a feature of the coastal plain. The Tymbos is now marked by a marble memorial stele and surrounded by a small park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name "Marathon" (Μαραθών) comes from the herb fennel, called marathon (μάραθον) or marathos (μάραθος) in Ancient Greek, so Marathon literally means "a place full of fennels".</p><br>
<p>It is believed that the town was originally named so because of an abundance of fennel plants in the area.</p><br>
<p>After Miltiades (the general of the Greek forces) defeated Darius Persian forces, the Persians decided to sail from Marathon to Athens in order to sack the unprotected city. Miltiades ordered all his hoplite forces to march "double time" back to Athens, so that by the time Darius troops arrived they saw the same Greek force waiting for them.</p><br>
<p>The name of the athletic long-distance endurance race, the "marathon", comes from the legend of Pheidippides, a Greek soldier and runner who was sent from Marathon to Athens to announce that the Persians had been defeated in the Battle of Marathon.</p><br>
<p>Although the name Marathon had a positive resonance in Europe in the nineteenth century, for some time that was sullied by the Dilessi murders, which happened nearby in 1870.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century and beginning of twentieth century the village was inhabited by Albanian population. Thomas Chase, an English traveller, describes his meeting with ‘an old Albanian’ in Marathon and also says that they ‘accosted some Albanian children playing near a well, but they did not understand modern Greek.’ Another English traveller Robert Hichens writes in 1913: ‘Some clustering low houses far off under the hills form the Albanian village of Marathon.’</p><br>
<p>The sophist and magnate Herodes Atticus was born in Marathon. In 1926, the American company ULEN began construction on the Marathon Dam in a valley above Marathon, in order to ensure water supply for Athens. It was completed in 1929. About 10 km² of forested land were flooded to form Lake Marathon.</p><br>
<p>The beach of Schinias is located southeast of the town and it is a popular windsurfing spot and the Olympic Rowing Center for the 2004 Summer Olympics is also located there. At the 1896 and 2004 Summer Olympics, Marathon was the starting point of the marathon races (for both women and men in 2004). The area is susceptible to flash flooding, because of forest fires having denuded parts of the eastern slopes of Mount Penteli especially in 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The municipality Marathon was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 4 former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Grammatiko</p><br>
<p>Marathon</p><br>
<p>Nea Makri</p><br>
<p>Varnavas</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 222.747 km, the municipal unit 97.062 km.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>The other settlements in the municipal unit are Agios Panteleimonas (pop. 1,591), Kato Souli (2,142), Vranas (1,082), Avra (191), Vothon (177), Ano Souli (232), and Schinias (264).</p><br>
<h2>Points of interest</h2><br>
<p>Kato Souli Naval Transmission Facility with its 250 m tall radio mast, the tallest structure in Greece.</p><br>
<h2>Sister cities</h2><br>
<p>Xiamen, China</p><br>
<p>Hopkinton, Massachusetts, United States</p><br>
<p>Lake Baringo is, after Lake Turkana, the most northern of the Kenyan Rift Valley lakes, with a surface area of about 130 km&sup2; and an elevation of about 970 m. The lake is fed by several rivers, Molo, Perkerra and Ol Arabel, and has no obvious outlet; the waters are assumed to seep through lake sediments into the faulted volcanic bedrock. It is one of the two freshwater lakes in the Rift Valley in Kenya, the other being Lake Naivasha.</p><br>
<p>See "Kenya designates freshwater lake in Great Rift Valley," at.</p><br>
<p>It lies off the beaten track in a hot and dusty setting and over 470 species of birds have been recorded there, occasionally including migrating flamingos. A Goliath heronry is located on a rocky islet in the lake known as Gibraltar.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The lake is part of the East African Rift system. The Tugen Hills, an uplifted fault block of volcanic and metamorphic rocks, lies west of the lake. The Laikipia Escarpment lies to the east.</p><br>
<p>Water flows into the lake from the Mau Hills and Tugen Hills. It is a critical habitat and refuge for more than 500 species of birds and fauna, some of the migratory waterbird species being significant regionally and globally. The lake also provides an invaluable habitat for seven fresh water fish species. One, Oreochromis niloticus baringoensis (a Nile tilapia subspecies), is endemic to the lake. Lake fishing is important to local social and economic development. Additionally the area is a habitat for many species of animals including the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) and many other mammals, amphibians, reptiles and the invertebrate communities.</p><br>
<p>While stocks of Nile tilapia in the lake are now low, the decline of this species has been mirrored by the success of another, the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) which was introduced to the lake in 1974 and which now provides the majority of fish output from the lake. Water levels have been reduced by droughts and over-irrigation. The lake is commonly turbid with sediment, partly due to intense soil erosion in the catchment, especially on the Loboi Plain south of the lake.</p><br>
<p>The lake has several small islands, the largest being Ol Kokwe Island. Ol Kokwe, an extinct volcanic centre related to Korosi volcano north of the lake, has several hot springs and fumaroles, some of which have precipitated sulfur deposits. A group of hot springs discharge along the shoreline at Soro near the northeastern corner of the island.</p><br>
<p>Several important archaeological and palaeontological sites, some of which have yielded fossil hominoids and hominins, are present in the Miocene to Pleistocene sedimentary sequences of the Tugen Hills.</p><br>
<p>The main town near the lake is Marigat, while smaller settlements include Kampi ya Samaki and Loruk. The area is increasingly visited by tourists and is situated at the southern end of a region of Kenya inhabited largely by pastoralist ethnic groups including Il Chamus, Rendille, Turkana and Kalenjin. Accommodation (hotels, self-catering cottages and camping sites) as well as boating services are available at and near Kampi-Ya-Samaki on the western shore, as well as on several of the islands in the lake.</p><br>
<p>The journey to Lake Baringo was famously noted to be "... a genuine pain in the ass" by Jimmy Stewart in a poem read on the Tonight Show with Johnny Carson.</p><br>
<p>The Strait of Juan de Fuca  is a large body of water about 154 km long that is the Salish Sea&#39;s outlet to the Pacific Ocean. The international boundary between Canada and the United States runs down the center of the Strait.</p><br>
<p>It was named in 1787 by the maritime fur trader Charles William Barkley, captain of the Imperial Eagle, for Juan de Fuca, the Greek navigator who sailed in a Spanish expedition in 1592 to seek the fabled Strait of Anián. Barkley was the first non-indigenous person to find the strait, unless Juan de Fuca&#39;s story was true. The strait was explored in detail between 1789 and 1791 by Manuel Quimper, José María Narváez, Juan Carrasco, Gonzalo López de Haro, and Francisco de Eliza.</p><br>
<h2>Definition</h2><br>
<p>The USGS defines the Strait of Juan de Fuca as a channel. It extends east from the Pacific Ocean between Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and the Olympic Peninsula, Washington, to Haro Strait, San Juan Channel, Rosario Strait, and Puget Sound. The Pacific Ocean boundary is formed by a line between Cape Flattery and Tatoosh Island, Washington, and Carmanah Point (Vancouver Island), British Columbia. Its northern boundary follows the shoreline of Vancouver Island from Carmanah Point to Gonzales Point, then follows a continuous line east to Seabird Point (Discovery Island), British Columbia, Cattle Point (San Juan Island), Washington, Iceberg Point (Lopez Island), Point Colville (Lopez Island), and then to Rosario Head (Fidalgo Island). The eastern boundary runs south from Rosario Head across Deception Pass to Whidbey Island, then along the western coast of Whidbey Island to Point Partridge, then across Admiralty Inlet to Point Wilson (Quimper Peninsula). The northern coast of the Olympic Peninsula forms the southern boundary of the strait. In the eastern entrance to the Strait, the Race Rocks Archipelago is located in the high current zone halfway between Port Angeles, Washington, and Victoria, BC.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Like the rest of the Salish Sea and surrounding regions, the climate of the Strait is disputed, with the Köppen system classifying it as Mediterranean, but most regional climatologists preferring oceanic. While the climate is mostly oceanic in nature, the dry summers result in the Mediterranean classification in the Köppen system. Rainfall ranges from over 100 in (temperate rainforest) conditions at the west end to as little as 16 in at the east end, near Sequim.</p><br>
<p>Because it is exposed to the generally westerly winds and waves of the Pacific, seas and weather in Juan de Fuca Strait are, on average, rougher than in the more protected waters inland, thereby resulting in a number of small-craft advisories.</p><br>
<h2>Ferries</h2><br>
<p>An international vehicle ferry crosses the Strait from Port Angeles, Washington to Victoria, British Columbia several times each day, as do passenger ferries of the Washington State Ferry system, a seasonal private ferry connecting Port Angeles with Victoria, and a private high-speed ferry between Victoria and Seattle.</p><br>
<h2>Boundary dispute</h2><br>
<h2>Salish Sea</h2><br>
<p>In March 2008, the Chemainus First Nation proposed renaming the strait the "Salish Sea", an idea that reportedly met with approval by British Columbia&#39;s Aboriginal Relations Minister Mike de Jong, who pledged to put it before the B.C. cabinet for discussion. Making Salish Sea official required a formal application to the Geographical Names Board of Canada. A parallel American movement promoting the name had a different definition, combining of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound as well as the Strait of Georgia and related waters under the more general name Salish Sea. This latter definition was made official in 2009 by geographic boards of Canada and the United States.</p><br>
<p>In October 2009, the Washington State Board of Geographic Names approved the Salish Sea toponym, not to replace the names of the Strait of Georgia, Puget Sound, and Strait of Juan de Fuca, but instead as a collective term for all three. The British Columbia Geographical Names Office passed a resolution only recommending that the name be adopted by the Geographical Names Board of Canada, should its US counterpart approve the name-change. The United States Board on Geographic Names approved the name on November 12, 2009.</p><br>
<h2>Counties and regional districts</h2><br>
<p>Counties along the Strait of Juan de Fuca:</p><br>
<p>Clallam County, Washington</p><br>
<p>Jefferson County, Washington</p><br>
<p>Island County, Washington</p><br>
<p>Skagit County, Washington</p><br>
<p>San Juan County, Washington</p><br>
<p>Regional districts along the Strait of Juan de Fuca:</p><br>
<p>Capital Regional District, British Columbia</p><br>
<p>Cowichan Valley Regional District</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>Certain groups of seabirds called common murre migrate north by swimming. Some Pacific Coast murres paddle north to the sheltered bays of the Strait of Juan de Fuca to feed on herring and other small fish.</p><br>
<h2>Other</h2><br>
<p>Some scenes from the film The Hunt for Red October were filmed in the Strait of Juan de Fuca in 1989.</p><br>
<p>The Bay of Biscay  is a gulf of the northeast Atlantic Ocean located south of the Celtic Sea. It lies along the western coast of France from Point Penmarc&#39;h to the Spanish border, and the northern coast of Spain west to Cape Ortegal.</p><br>
<p>The south area of the Bay of Biscay washes the northern coast of Spain and is known as the Cantabrian Sea.</p><br>
<p>The average depth is 1,744 m and the greatest depth is 4,735 m.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The Bay of Biscay is named (for English speakers) after Biscay on the northern Spanish coast, probably standing for the western Basque districts (Biscay up to the early 19th century). Its name in other languages is:</p><br>
<p>* Golfu de Biscaya</p><br>
<p>* Bizkaiko golkoa</p><br>
<p>* Pleg-mor Gwaskogn</p><br>
<p>* Golfe de Gascogne (named after Gascony, France)</p><br>
<p>* Golfo de Biscaia</p><br>
<p>* Gascon Golf de Gasconha</p><br>
<p>* Golfo de Vizcaya (Mar Cantábrico for the ocean area closer to the Spanish coast, the Cantabrian Sea)</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Parts of the continental shelf extend far into the bay, resulting in fairly shallow waters in many areas and thus the rough seas for which the region is known. The Bay of Biscay is home to some of the Atlantic Ocean&#39;s fiercest weather. Large storms occur in the bay, especially during the winter months. Up until recent years it was a regular occurrence for merchant vessels to founder in Biscay storms.</p><br>
<h3>Extent</h3><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Bay of Biscay as "a line joining Cap Ortegal ({{coord|43|46|N|7|52|W|display=inline}}) to Penmarch Point ({{coord|47|48|N|4|22|W|display=inline}})".</p><br>
<p>The southernmost portion is the Cantabrian Sea.</p><br>
<h3>Rivers</h3><br>
<p>The main rivers that empty into the Bay of Biscay are Loire, Charente, Garonne, Dordogne, Adour, Nivelle, Bidasoa, Oiartzun, Urumea, Oria, Urola, Deba, Artibai, Lea, Oka, Nervión, Agüera, Asón, Miera, Pas, Saja, Nansa, Deva, Sella, Nalón, Navia, Esva, Eo, Landro and Sor.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>In late spring and early summer a large fog triangle fills the southwestern half of the bay, covering just a few kilometres inland.</p><br>
<p>As winter begins, weather becomes severe. Depressions enter from the west very frequently and they either bounce north to the British Isles or they enter the Ebro Valley, dry out, and are finally reborn in the form of powerful thunderstorms as they reach the Mediterranean Sea. These depressions cause severe weather at sea and bring light though very constant rain to its shores (known as orballo, sirimiri, morrina, orbayu, orpin or calabobos). Sometimes powerful windstorms form if the pressure falls rapidly( Galernas), traveling along the Gulf Stream at great speed, resembling a hurricane, and finally crashing in this bay with their maximum power, such as the Klaus storm.</p><br>
<p>The Gulf Stream enters the bay following the continental shelf&#39;s border anti-clockwise (the Rennell Current), keeping temperatures moderate all year long.</p><br>
<h3>Main cities</h3><br>
<p>The main cities on the shores of the Bay of Biscay are Bordeaux, Bayonne, Biarritz, Brest, Nantes, La Rochelle, Donostia-San Sebastián, Bilbao, Santander, Gijón and Avilés.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The southern end of the gulf is also called in Spanish "Mar Cantábrico" (Cantabrian Sea), from the Estaca de Bares, as far as the mouth of Adour river, but this name is not generally used in English. It was named by Romans in the 1st century BC as Sinus Cantabrorum (Bay of the Cantabri) and also, Mare Gallaecum (the Sea of the Galicians). On some medieval maps, the Bay of Biscay is marked as El Mar del los Vascos (the Basque Sea).</p><br>
<p>The Bay of Biscay has been the site of many famous naval engagements over the centuries. In 1592 the Spanish defeated an English fleet during the eponymous Battle of the Bay of Biscay. The Biscay campaign of June 1795 consisted of a series of manoeuvres and two battles fought between the British Channel Fleet and the French Atlantic Fleet off the southern coast of Brittany during the second year of the French Revolutionary Wars. The USS Californian sank here after striking a naval mine on June 22, 1918. In 1920 the SS Afrique (1907) sank after losing power and drifting into a reef in a storm with the loss of 575 lives. On December 28, 1943, the Battle of the Bay of Biscay was fought between HMS Glasgow and HMS Enterprise and a group of German destroyers as part of Operation Stonewall during World War II. U-667 sank on 25 August 1944 in position {{coord|46|00|N|01|30|W}}, when she struck a mine. All hands were lost.</p><br>
<p>On April 12, 1970, Soviet submarine K-8 sank in the Bay of Biscay due to a fire that crippled the sub&#39;s nuclear reactors. An attempt to save the sub failed, resulting in the death of forty sailors and the loss of four nuclear torpedoes. Due to the great depth (15,000 feet), no salvage operation was attempted.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<h3>Marine mammals</h3><br>
<p>The car ferries from Gijón to Nantes/Saint-Nazaire, Portsmouth to Bilbao and from Plymouth, Portsmouth and Poole to Santander provide one of the most convenient ways to see cetaceans in European waters. Often specialist groups take the ferries to hear more information.</p><br>
<p>Volunteers and employees of Biscay Dolphin Research regularly observe and monitor cetacean activity from the bridge of the ships on the P&O Ferries Portsmouth to Bilbao route. Many species of whales and dolphins can be seen in this area. Most importantly, it is one of the few places where the beaked whales, such as the Cuvier&#39;s beaked whale, have been observed relatively frequently. This is the best study area in the world for beaked whales.</p><br>
<p>North Atlantic Right Whales, one of the most endangered whales, once came to the bay for feeding and probably for calving as well, but whaling activities by Basques and others almost wiped them out sometime prior to 1850s. In modern days, the eastern population of this species are considered to be almost extinct, and there has been no record of right whales in the Bay of Biscay except for possible few sightings made in modern time, a pair which was possibly a mother-calf pair in 1977 at {{coord|43|00|N|10|30|W}}, and another pair in earlier June 1980 seen by merchantmen. Other records in the late 20th century include one off Galicia at {{coord|43|00|N|10|30|W}} in September 1977 reported by a whaling company and another one seen off the Iberian Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>The best areas to see the larger cetaceans lie in the deep waters beyond the continental shelf, particularly over the Santander Canyon and Torrelavega Canyon in the south of the Bay.</p><br>
<p>The three-day round trip also gives sightings of good numbers of several species of seabirds, particularly gannets.</p><br>
<p>The alga Colpomenia peregrina was introduced and first noticed in 1906 by oyster fishermen in the Bay of Biscay.</p><br>
<p>The Grammatostomias flagellibarba commonly known as the scaleless dragonfish are native to these waters.</p><br>
<p>Sussex, from the Old English Sūþsēaxe , is a historic county in South East England corresponding roughly in area to the ancient Kingdom of Sussex. It is bounded to the west by Hampshire, north by Surrey, northeast by Kent, south by the English Channel, and divided for many purposes into the ceremonial counties of West Sussex and East Sussex. Brighton and Hove, though part of East Sussex, was made a unitary authority in 1997, and as such, is administered independently of the rest of East Sussex. Brighton and Hove was granted City status in 2000. Until then, Chichester was Sussex&#39;s only city.</p><br>
<p>Sussex has three main geographic sub-regions, each oriented approximately east to west. In the southwest is the fertile and densely populated coastal plain. North of this are the rolling chalk hills of the South Downs, beyond which is the well-wooded Sussex Weald.</p><br>
<p>The name derives from the Kingdom of Sussex, which was founded, according to legend, by Ælle of Sussex in AD 477. In 825, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Wessex and subsequently into the kingdom of England. It was the home of some of Europe&#39;s earliest hominids, whose remains have been found at Boxgrove, and was invaded by the Romans and is the site of the Battle of Hastings.</p><br>
<p>In 1974, the Lord-Lieutenant of Sussex was replaced with one each for East and West Sussex, which became separate ceremonial counties. Sussex continues to be recognised as a geographical territory and cultural region. It has had a single police force since 1968 and its name is in common use in the media. In 2007, Sussex Day was created to celebrate the countys rich culture and history. Based on the traditional emblem of Sussex, a blue shield with six gold martlets, the flag of Sussex was recognised by the Flag Institute in 2011. In 2013, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government Eric Pickles formally recognised and acknowledged the continued existence of Englands 39 historic counties, including Sussex.</p><br>
<h2>Toponymy</h2><br>
<p>The name "Sussex" is derived from the Middle English Suth-sæxe, which is in turn derived from the Old English Suth-Seaxe which means (land or people) of the South Saxons (cf. Essex, Middlesex and Wessex). The South Saxons were a Germanic tribe that settled in the region from the North German Plain during the 5th and 6th centuries.</p><br>
<p>The earliest known usage of the term South Saxons (Latin: Australes Saxones) is in a royal charter of 689 which names them and their king, Noðhelm, although the term may well have been in use for some time before that. The monastic chronicler who wrote up the entry classifying the invasion seems to have got his dates wrong; recent scholars have suggested he might have been a quarter of a century too late.</p><br>
<p>The New Latin word Suthsexia was used for Sussex by Dutch cartographer Joan Blaeu in his 1645 map.</p><br>
<p>Three United States counties (in Delaware, New Jersey, and Virginia), and a former county/land division of Western Australia, are named after Sussex.</p><br>
<h2>Symbols</h2><br>
<p>The flag of Sussex consists of six gold martlets, or heraldic swallows, on a blue background, blazoned as Azure, six martlets or. Officially recognised by the Flag Institute on 20 May 2011, its design is based on the heraldic shield of Sussex. The first known recording of this emblem being used to represent the county was in 1611 when cartographer John Speed deployed it to represent the Kingdom of the South Saxons. However it seems that Speed was repeating an earlier association between the emblem and the county, rather than being the inventor of the association. It is now firmly regarded that the county emblem originated and derived from the coat of arms of the 14th century Knight of the Shire, Sir John de Radynden. Sussex’s six martlets are today held to symbolise the traditional six sub-divisions of the county known as rapes.</p><br>
<p>Sussex by the Sea is regarded as the unofficial anthem of Sussex; it was composed by William Ward-Higgs in 1907, perhaps originally from the lyrics of Rudyard Kipling&#39;s poem entitled Sussex. Adopted by the Royal Sussex Regiment and popularised in World War I, it is sung at celebrations across the county, including those at Lewes Bonfire, and at sports matches, including those of Brighton and Hove Albion Football Club and Sussex County Cricket Club.</p><br>
<p>The county day, called Sussex Day, is celebrated on 16 June, the same day as the feast day of St Richard of Chichester, Sussex&#39;s patron saint, whose shrine at Chichester Cathedral was an important place of pilgrimage in the Middle Ages.</p><br>
<p>Sussexs motto, We wunt be druv, is a Sussex dialect expression meaning "we will not be pushed around" and reflects the traditionally independent nature of Sussex men and women. The round-headed rampion, also known as the "Pride of Sussex", was adopted as Sussexs county flower in 2002.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Landscape</h3><br>
<p>South Coast Plain</p><br>
<p>South Downs</p><br>
<p>Wealden Greensand</p><br>
<p>Low Weald</p><br>
<p>High Weald</p><br>
<p>Pevensey Levels</p><br>
<p>Romney Marshes</p><br>
<p>At 280m, Blackdown is the highest point in Sussex, or county top. Ditchling Beacon (248m) is the highest point in East Sussex. At 113 km long, the River Medway is the longest river flowing through Sussex. The longest river entirely in Sussex is the River Arun, which is 60 km long. Sussex&#39;s largest lakes are man-made reservoirs. The largest is Bewl Water on the Kent border, while the largest wholly within Sussex is Ardingly Reservoir.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The coastal resorts of Sussex and neighbouring Hampshire are the sunniest places in the United Kingdom. Most of Sussex lies in Hardiness zone 8; the exception is the coastal plain west of Brighton, which lies in the milder zone 9.</p><br>
<p>Rainfall is below average with the heaviest precipitation on the South Downs with 950 mm of rainfall per year. The close proximity of Sussex to the Continent of Europe, results in cold spells in winter and hot, humid weather in summer.</p><br>
<p>The climate of the coastal districts is strongly influenced by the sea, which, because of its tendency to warm up slower than land, can result in cooler temperatures than inland in the summer. In the autumn months, the coast sometimes has higher temperatures. Rainfall during the summer months is mainly from thunderstorms and thundery showers; from January to March the heavier rainfall is due to prevailing south-westerly frontal systems.</p><br>
<p>In winter, the east winds can be as cold as further inland.</p><br>
<p>The sunshine average is approximately 1900 hours a year, this is much higher than the UK average of 1340 hours a year.</p><br>
<h3>Conurbations</h3><br>
<p>Most of Sussexs population is distributed in an east-west line along the English Channel coast or on the east-west line of the A272. The exception to this pattern is the 20th century north-south development on the A23-Brighton line corridor, Sussexs main link to London. Sussexs population is dominated by the Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton conurbation that, with a population of over 470,000, is home to almost 1 in 3 of Sussexs population. According to the ONS urban area populations for continuous built-up areas, these are the 5 largest conurbations (population figures from the 2001 census):</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>The combined population of Sussex is about 1.6 million. In 2011, Sussex had a population density of 425 per km, higher than the average for England of 407 per km.</p><br>
<p>The earliest statement as to the population of Sussex is made by Bede, who describes the county as containing in 681 land of 7,000 families; allowing ten to a family (a reasonable estimate at that date), the total population would be 70,000.</p><br>
<p>In 1693 the county is stated to have contained 21,537 houses. The 1801 census found that the population was 159,311. The decline of the Sussex ironworks probably accounts for the small increase of population during several centuries, although after the massacre of St Bartholomew upwards of 1,500 Huguenots landed at Rye, and in 1685, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, many more refugees were added to the county.</p><br>
<p>The area of the ancient county is 933,887 acre with a population in 1891 of 550,446 and in 1901 of 605,202.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Beginnings</h3><br>
<p>Finds at Eartham Pit in Boxgrove show that the area has some of the earliest hominid remains in Europe, dating back some 500,000 years and known as Boxgrove Man or Homo heidelbergensis. At a site near Pulborough called The Beedings, tools have been found that date from around 35,000 years ago and that are thought to be from either the last Neanderthals in northern Europe or pioneer populations of modern humans. The thriving population lived by hunting game such as horses, bison, mammoth and woolly rhinos. Around 6000BC the ice sheet over the North Sea melted, sea levels rose and the meltwaters burst south and westwards, creating the English Channel and cutting the people of Sussex off from their Mesolithic kinsmen to the south. Later in the Neolithic period, the area of the South Downs above Worthing was one of Britain&#39;s largest and most important flint-mining centres. The flints were used to help fell trees for agriculture. The oldest of these mines, at Church Hill in Findon, has been carbon-dated to 4500BC to 3750BC, making it one of the earliest known mines in Britain. Flint tools from Cissbury have been found as far away as the eastern Mediterranean.</p><br>
<p>Sussex is rich in remains from the Bronze and Iron Ages, in particular the Bronze Age barrows known as the Devils Jumps and Cissbury Ring, one of Britains largest hillforts. Towards the end of the Iron Age in 75BC people from the Atrebates, one of the tribes of the Belgae, a mix of Celtic and German stock, started invading and occupying southern Britain. This was followed by an invasion by the Roman army under Julius Caesar that temporarily occupied the south-east in 55BC.</p><br>
<p>Soon after the first Roman invasion had ended, the Celtic Regnenses tribe under their leader Commius occupied the Manhood Peninsula. Tincomarus and then Cogidubnus followed Commius as rulers of the Regnenses.</p><br>
<h3>Roman Canton</h3><br>
<p>At the time of the Roman conquest in AD43, there was an oppidum in the southern part of their territory, probably in the Selsey region. A number of archaeologists now think there is a strong possibility that the Roman invasion of Britain in AD43 started around Fishbourne and Chichester Harbour rather than the traditional landing place of Richborough in Kent. According to this theory, the Romans were called to restore the refugee Verica, king of the Atrebates, who had been driven out by the Catuvellauni, a tribe based around modern Hertfordshire.</p><br>
<p>Sussex was home to the magnificent Roman Palace at Fishbourne, by far the largest Roman residence known north of the Alps. Much of Sussex was a Roman canton of the Regnenses or Regni, with its capital at Noviomagus Reginorum, modern-day Chichester. The Romans built villas, especially on the coastal plain and around Chichester, one of the best preserved being that at Bignor. Christianity first came to Sussex at this time, but faded away when the Romans left in the 5th century. The nationally important Patching hoard of Roman coins that was found in 1997 is the latest find of Roman coins found in Britain, probably deposited after 475 AD, well after the Roman departure from Britain around 410 AD.</p><br>
<h3>Saxon Kingdom</h3><br>
<p>The foundation legend of Sussex is provided by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which states that in the year AD 477 Ælle landed with his three sons. Having fought on the banks of the Mearcredesburna,ASC 485 Parker MS: This year Ælle fought with the Welsh nigh Mecred&#39;s- Burnsted.</p><br>
<p>it seems Aelle secured the area between the Ouse and Cuckmere in a treaty. After Aelle’s forces seized the Saxon Shore fort of Anderida, the South Saxons were able to gradually colonise free of Romano-British control and extend their territory westwards to link with the Saxon settlement at Highdown Hill. Aelle was recognised as the first Bretwalda or overlord of southern Britain. He was probably the most senior of the Anglo-Saxon kings and led the ill-fated campaign against King Arthur at Mount Badon.</p><br>
<p>By the end of the 7th century, the region around Selsey and Chichester had become the political centre of the kingdom. In the 660s-670s, King Aethelwealh of Sussex formed an alliance with the Mercian king Wulfhere and together they took the Isle of Wight from the West Saxons, probably at the battle of Biedanheafele. As Mercia&#39;s first Christian king, Wulfhere insisted that Æthelwealh also convert to Christianity. Æthelwealh was baptised in Mercia, with Wulfhere as his sponsor. Wulfhere gave the Isle of Wight and Meon Valley to Aethelwealh, with Wulfhere acting as overlord. The alliance with Mercia was sealed with Æthelwealh taking the hand of Eabe, a Mercian princess in marriage.</p><br>
<p>Wilfrid, the exiled bishop of York, came to Sussex in 681 and with King Æthelwealhs approval set up a mission to convert the people of Sussex to Christianity. Æthelwealh gave Wilfrid land on the Manhood peninsula, close to his own royal estate and Wilfrid founded Selsey Abbey. The mission was jeopardised when King Æthelwealh was killed by Cædwalla, a prince of Wessex. Cædwalla confirmed Æthelwealhs grant of land and Wilfrid built his Selsey Abbey. Cædwalla was driven out by the South Saxon nobles Berthun and Andhun.</p><br>
<p>The South Saxons fought off the West Saxons in 722 and again in 725. At the end of the 8th century, Ealdwulf was perhaps the last independent king of Sussex, after which Sussex and other southern kingdoms came increasingly under Mercian rule. Mercia&#39;s grip was shattered in 825 at the battle of Ellendun, after which Sussex and the other southern kingdoms came under the control of Wessex, which later grew into the kingdom of England.</p><br>
<h3>Norman Sussex</h3><br>
<p>Sussex was the venue for the momentous Battle of Hastings, the decisive victory in the Norman conquest of England. In September 1066, William of Normandy landed with his forces at Pevensey and erected a wooden castle at Hastings, from which they raided the surrounding area. The battle was fought between Duke William of Normandy and the English king, Harold Godwinson, who had strong connections with Sussex and whose chief seat was probably in Bosham. After having marched his exhausted army all the way from Yorkshire, Harold fought the Normans at the Battle of Hastings, where Englands army was defeated and Harold was killed. It is likely that all the fighting men of Sussex were at the battle, as the countys thegns were decimated and any that survived had their lands confiscated. William built Battle Abbey at the site of the battle, with the exact spot where Harold fell marked by the high altar.</p><br>
<p>Sussex experienced some of the greatest changes of any English county under the Normans, for it was the heartland of King Harold and was potentially vulnerable to further invasion.</p><br>
<p>The county was of great importance to the Normans; Hastings and Pevensey being on the most direct route for Normandy. The countys existing sub-divisions, known as rapes, were made into castleries and each territory was given to one of Williams most trusted barons. Castles were built to defend the territories including at Arundel, Bramber, Lewes, Pevensey and Hastings. Sussexs bishop, Æthelric II, was deposed and imprisoned and replaced with and William the Conquerors personal chaplain, Stigand. The Normans also built Chichester Cathedral and moved the seat of Sussex&#39;s bishopric from Selsey to Chichester. The Normans also founded new towns in Sussex, including New Shoreham (the centre of modern Shoreham-by-Sea), Battle, Arundel, Uckfield and Winchelsea.</p><br>
<p>In 1264, the Sussex Downs were the location of the Battle of Lewes, in which Simon de Montfort and his fellow barons captured Prince Edward (later Edward I), the son and heir of Henry III. The subsequent treaty, known as the Mise of Lewes, led to Montfort summoning the first parliament in English history without any prior royal authorisation. A provisional administration was set up, consisting of Montfort, the Bishop of Chichester and the Earl of Gloucester. These three were to elect a council of nine, to govern until a permanent settlement could be reached.</p><br>
<h3>Sussex under the Plantagenets</h3><br>
<p>During the Hundred Years War, Sussex found itself on the frontline, convenient both for intended invasions and retaliatory expeditions by licensed French pirates. Hastings, Rye and Winchelsea were all burnt during this period and all three towns became part of the Cinque Ports, a loose federation for supplying ships for the countrys security. Also at this time, Amberley and Bodiam castles were built to defend the upper reaches of navigable rivers.</p><br>
<h3>Early modern Sussex</h3><br>
<p>Like the rest of the country, the Church of England&#39;s split with Rome during the reign of Henry VIII was felt in Sussex. In 1538 there was a royal order for the demolition of the shrine of Saint Richard, in Chichester Cathedral, with Thomas Cromwell saying that there was "a certain kind of idolatry about the shrine". In the reign of Queen Mary, 41 people in Sussex were burnt at the stake for their Protestant beliefs. Elizabeth re-established the break with Rome when she passed the 1559 Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity. Under Elizabeth I, religious intolerance continued albeit on a lesser scale, with several people being executed for their Catholic beliefs.</p><br>
<p>Sussex escaped the worst ravages of the English Civil War, although in 1642 there were sieges at Arundel and Chichester, and a skirmish at Haywards Heath when Royalists marching towards Lewes were intercepted by local Parliamentarians. The Royalists were routed with around 200 killed or taken prisoner. Despite its being under Parliamentarian control, Charles II was able to journey through the county after the Battle of Worcester in 1651 to make his escape to France from the port of Shoreham.</p><br>
<h3>Late modern and contemporary Sussex</h3><br>
<p>The Sussex coast was greatly modified by the social movement of sea bathing for health which became fashionable among the wealthy in the second half of the 18th century. Conditions became so bad that it was even reported to the House of Lords in 1830 that four harvest labourers (seasonal workers) had been found dead of starvation.</p><br>
<p>Railways spread across Sussex in the 19th century and county councils were created for Sussex&#39;s eastern and western divisions in 1889.</p><br>
<p>During World War I, on the eve of the Battle of the Somme on 30 June 1916, the Royal Sussex Regiment took part in the Battle of the Boars Head at Richebourg-lAvoué. The day subsequently became known as The Day Sussex Died. Over a period of less than five hours the 17 officers and 349 men were killed, including 12 sets of brothers, including three from one family. A further 1,000 men were wounded or taken prisoner.</p><br>
<p>With the declaration of the World War II, Sussex found itself part of the countrys frontline with its airfields playing a key role in the Battle of Britain and with its towns being some of the most frequently bombed. As the Sussex regiments served overseas, the defence of the county was undertaken by units of the Home Guard with help from the First Canadian Army. During the lead up to the D-Day landings, the people of Sussex were witness to the buildup of military personnel and materials, including the assembly of landing crafts and construction of Mulberry harbours off the countys coast.</p><br>
<p>In the post-war era, the New Towns Act 1946 designated Crawley as the site of a new town. As part of the Local Government Act 1972, the eastern and western divisions of Sussex were made into the ceremonial counties of East and West Sussex in 1974. Boundaries were changed and a large part of the rape of Lewes was transferred from the eastern division into West Sussex, along with Gatwick Airport, which was historically part of the county of Surrey.</p><br>
<h2>Governance</h2><br>
<h3>Politics</h3><br>
<p>From 1290, Sussex returned two Members of Parliament to the House of Commons of the Parliament of England. Each county returned two MPs and each borough designated by Royal charter also returned two MPs. After the union with Scotland two members represented the county in the House of Commons of Great Britain from 1707 to 1800 and of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom from 1801 to 1832. After the Reform Act 1832 some of the larger industrial towns of northern England were enfranchised for the first time and smaller English boroughs (known as Rotten Boroughs) were disenfranchised, including Bramber, East Grinstead, Seaford, Steyning and Winchelsea in Sussex. The reforms of the 19th century made the electoral system more representative, but it was not until 1928 that there was universal suffrage.</p><br>
<h3>Law</h3><br>
<p>Headquartered in Lewes, Home Office policing in Sussex has been provided by Sussex Police since 1968.</p><br>
<p>The first-tier Crown Court for all of Sussex is Lewes Crown Court, which has courts in Lewes, Brighton and Hove. Like other first-tier Crown Courts it has its own resident High Court Judge. There is also a third-tier Crown Court at Chichester. The local prison in Sussex for men is Lewes Prison and there is also a Category D prison at Ford.</p><br>
<h3>Administrative divisions</h3><br>
<h4>Historic sub-divisions</h4><br>
<p>A rape was a traditional sub-division of the county of Sussex. Their origin is unknown, but they appear to predate the Norman Conquest. Each rape was split into several hundreds.</p><br>
<p>At the time of the Norman Conquest, there were four rapes: Arundel, Lewes, Pevensey and Hastings. The rape of Bramber was created later in the 11th century and the rape of Chichester was created in the 13th century.</p><br>
<h4>Modern local authority areas</h4><br>
<p>Sussex is divided into two administrative counties and one unitary authority, Brighton and Hove.</p><br>
<p>The divisions of east Sussex and west Sussex have their roots in the churchs division of the county at the river Adur into east and west parts (divided from at least the 11th century into the archdeaconry of Chichester and the archdeaconry of Lewes). With Sussexs cathedral located at Chichester in the far west of the county, 9 miles from the western boundary and 90 miles from the eastern boundary, it became practical to divide the county into two sections. The three eastern rapes of Sussex became east Sussex and the three western rapes became west Sussex.</p><br>
<p>An act of Henry VII dating from 1504 directed that, for convenience, the two halves of the county should have separate administrations (Quarter Sessions). This situation was recognised by the County of Sussex Act 1865. Under the Local Government Act 1888, the two divisions became two administrative counties (along with three county boroughs: Brighton, Hastings and, from 1911, Eastbourne).</p><br>
<h3>Monarchy and peerage</h3><br>
<p>Created in the fifth century, the kingdom of Sussex continued until its absorption into the kingdom of Wessex and later England in 825. In charters, Sussexs monarchs were sometimes referred to as ealdormen, or Dux in Latin, which is sometimes translated as duke&#39;. The early Earls of Arundel, up to 1243, were often also called Earls of Sussex. In 1801 the title of Duke of Sussex was created and conferred on The Prince Augustus Frederick, the sixth son of George III. Since he had no legitimate issue, the title became extinct on his death in 1843. Although there was speculation that the dukedom would pass to Prince Andrew or Prince William the title is currently one of six inactive British royal titles.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Much of the Sussex Weald consists of wet sticky clays or drought-prone acid sands and is often broken up into to small irregular fields and woods by the topography, making it unsuitable for intensive arable farming. In these areas pastoral or mixed farming has always been the pattern, with field boundaries often little changed since the medieval period. Sussex cattle are the descendants of the draught oxen, which continued to be used in the Weald longer than in other parts of England. The chalk downlands were traditionally grazed by large numbers of small Southdown sheep, suited to the low fertility of the pasture, until the coming of artificial fertiliser made cereal growing worthwhile. There are still fishing fleets, notably at Rye and Hastings, but the number of boats is much reduced. There are working harbours at Rye, Hastings, Newhaven and Shoreham; whilst Pagham and Chichester harbours cater for leisure craft, as does Brighton Marina. Sussex had an iron working industry since the Roman period. The large supply of wood in the county made it a favourable centre for the industry, all smelting being done with charcoal till the middle of the 18th century. The glass making industry started on the Sussex/Surrey border in the early 13th century and flourished till the 17th century. The Mid Sussex area had a thriving clay industry in the first quarter of the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>Sussex has considerable variation in wealth and deprivation. Gross Value Added, a measure of output, was £27,464 million for Sussex in 2009. GVA per head in 2009 for Sussex was £17,590, higher than neighbouring Kent but around 86 per cent of the UK average of £20,341. GVA per capita varies significantly between Sussex&#39;s three upper tier local authority areas: in 2009 Brighton and Hove had the highest GVA per head in Sussex with an average of £20,611 (101 per cent of the UK average). In 2011, two Local Enterprise Partnerships were formed to improve the economy in Sussex. These were the Coast to Capital LEP, covering West Sussex, Brighton and Hove and the Lewes district in the west of East Sussex, as well as parts of Surrey and South London; and the South East LEP, which covers the local authority area of East Sussex, as well as Kent and Essex. In the most populous part of Sussex, around the Brighton and Hove Built-up area, the Greater Brighton City Deal was formed to enable the area to fulfil its economic potential, into one of the highest performing urban economies in the UK.</p><br>
<p>Tourism in Sussex is well-established, and includes seaside resorts and the South Downs National Park. Brighton and Hove has a high density of businesses involved in media, particularly digital or "new media&quot since the 1990s Brighton has been referred to as "Silicon Beach". The Greater Brighton City Deal seeks to develop Brighton’s creative-tech cluster under the name Tech City South. whilst reasonable rail connections allow many people to work in London.</p><br>
<p>Several large companies are based in Sussex including American Express (Brighton), The Body Shop (Littlehampton), Bowers & Wilkins (Worthing), Hastings Insurance (Bexhill), Ricardo plc (Shoreham-by-Sea), Rolls-Royce Motor Cars (Goodwood), Thales UK (Crawley), Alfa Laval (Eastbourne) and Virgin Atlantic Airways (Crawley).</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>The oldest university in Sussex is the University of Sussex, founded in 1961 at Falmer in Brighton, the first new university in England since World War Two. It has since been joined by the University of Brighton in 1992 and the University of Chichester in 2005. Higher Education is also provided at University Centre Hastings and Northbrook College, whose West Durrington campus is referred to as University Centre Worthing.</p><br>
<p>The Prebendal School in Chichester is the oldest known school in Sussex and probably dates to when the Normans moved the Sussex bishopric from Selsey to Chichester Cathedral in the 11th century. Primary and secondary education in the state sector in Sussex is provided by its three local education authorities of East and West Sussex County Councils and Brighton and Hove City Council. Sussex also has some of the best-known independent schools in England including Christ&#39;s Hospital School, Brighton College, Lancing College and Roedean School.</p><br>
<h2>Healthcare</h2><br>
<p>The Sussex County Hospital (now the Royal Sussex County Hospital) was founded in 1828 at Brighton whilst the Sussex County Mental Asylum (later St. Francis Hospital and now the Princess Royal Hospital) was founded in 1859 in the centre of county at Haywards Heath.</p><br>
<p>Sussexs first medical school, the Brighton and Sussex Medical School, was set up in 2002. In 2011 the four Sussex NHS primary care trusts (PCTs) joined forces to become NHS Sussex. The Major Trauma Centre at the Royal Sussex County Hospital is the Major Trauma Centre for Sussex with the Sussexs other hospitals acting as trauma units. It is one of only five major trauma centres across the NHS&#39;s South of England area. The hospital also houses the Sussex Cancer Centre which serves most of Sussex.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Sussex has a centuries-old reputation for being separate and culturally distinct from the rest of England. and have an aversion to being pushed around, as expressed through the Sussex motto, We wunt be druv. Sussex is known for its strong tradition of bonfire celebrations and its proud musical heritage. The county is home to Englands largest arts festival, the Brighton Festival and Brighton Pride, one of the UKs largest and oldest gay pride parades. Chichester is home to the Chichester Festival Theatre and Pallant House Gallery.</p><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>Sussex&#39;s building materials reflect its geology, being made of flint on and near the South Downs and sandstone in the Weald. Brick is used across the county.</p><br>
<p>Typically conservative and moderate, the architecture of Sussex also has elaborate and eccentric buildings rarely matched elsewhere in England including the Saxon Church of St Mary the Blessed Virgin, Sompting, Castle Goring, which has a front and rear of entirely different styles and Brighton&#39;s Indo-Saracenic Royal Pavilion.</p><br>
<h3>Dialect</h3><br>
<p>Historically, Sussex has had its own dialect with regional differences reflecting its cultural history. It has been divided into variants for the three western rapes of West Sussex, the two eastern rapes of Lewes and Pevensey and an area approximate to the easternmost rape of Hastings.</p><br>
<h3>Literature</h3><br>
<p>Writers born in Sussex include the Renaissance poet Thomas May and playwights Thomas Otway, and John Fletcher. One of the most prolific playwrights of his day, Fletcher is thought to have collaborated with Shakespeare. Notable Sussex poets include William Hayley, William Collins, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Wilfrid Scawen Blunt and Richard Realf, while poet and writer Hilaire Belloc spent most of his life in Sussex.</p><br>
<p>Sheila Kaye-Smith is known for her many novels in the British regional literature genre, which are set in the borderlands of Sussex and Kent. Other writers from Sussex include Maureen Duffy and Hammond Innes.</p><br>
<p>In addition there are writers, who while they were not born in Sussex had a strong connection. This includes William Blake and Alfred Tennyson. Sussex has been home to four winners of the Nobel Prize in Literature: Rudyard Kipling spent much of his life in Sussex, living in Rottingdean and later at Burwash. Irishman W.B. Yeats spent three winters living with American poet Ezra Pound at Colemans Hatch in the Ashdown Forest and towards the end of his life spent much time at Steyning and Withyham; John Galsworthy spent much of his life in Bury in the Sussex Downs; and Harold Pinter lived in Worthing in the 1960s.</p><br>
<p>H.G. Wells was brought up at Uppark, South Harting, near Petersfield, where his mother was housekeeper. He also went to school and taught in Midhurst. While the novelist John Cowper Powys is particularly associated with Dorset and Wales, he lived in Sussex from the mid-1890s until 1910. Another modernist Virginia Woolf (1882-1941) and her husband Leonard, had a country retreat at Monk&#39;s House in Rodmell near in Lewes from 1919. They received there many important visitors connected to the Bloomsbury Group, including T. S. Eliot, E. M. Forster, Roger Fry and Lytton Strachey. Scottish writer Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930) spent the last thirty years of his life in Crowborough. In 1897 Henry James (1843-1916) leased Lamb House in Rye, and purchasing it two years later, spent most of his last 18 years there, where he wrote several major works. Lamb House was subsequently home to both E.F. Benson and Rumer Godden.</p><br>
<p>AA Milne lived in Ashdown Forest for much of his life and set his Winnie-the-Pooh stories in the forest.</p><br>
<h3>Music</h3><br>
<p>Sussexs rich musical heritage encompasses folk, classical and popular genres amongst others. Composed by William Ward-Higgs, Sussex by the Sea is the countys unofficial anthem. William Henry Hudson compared the singing of the Sussexians with that of the Basques and the Tehuelche people of Patagonia, both peoples with ancient cultures. The songs sung by the Copper Family, Henry Burstow, Samuel Willett, Peter and Harriett Verrall, David Penfold and others were collected by John Broadwood and his niece Lucy Broadwood, Kate Lee and composers Ralph Vaughan Williams and George Butterworth. Sussex also played a major part in the folk music revival of the 1960s and 1970s with various singers including George Pop Maynard, Scan Tester, Tony Wales and the sisters</p><br>
<p>Dolly and Shirley Collins.</p><br>
<p>Sussex has also been home to many composers of classical music including Thomas Weelkes, John Ireland, Edward Elgar, Frank Bridge, Sir Hubert Parry and Ralph Vaughan Williams, who played a major part in recording Sussex&#39;s traditional music. and the Worthing Symphony Orchestra.</p><br>
<p>In popular music, Sussex has produced artists including Leo Sayer, The Cure, The Levellers, Brett Anderson, Keane, The Kooks, The Feeling, Rizzle Kicks, Conor Maynard, Tom Odell, Royal Blood and RagnBone Man. In the 1970s, Sussex was home to Phun City, the UK&#39;s first large-scale free music festival and hosted the 1974 Eurovision Song Contest which propelled ABBA to worldwide fame. Major festivals include The Great Escape Festival and Glyndebourne Festival Opera.</p><br>
<h3>Religion</h3><br>
<p>Sussex is connected with several saints, including St Lewina; St Wilfrid, sometimes known as the Apostle of Sussex; St Cuthman of Steyning; St Richard of Chichester, Sussexs patron saint; St Philip Howard, Earl of Arundel; and James Hannington. In folklore, Mayfield and Devils Dyke are linked with St Dunstan while West Tarring has links with St Thomas a Becket. The historic county has been a single diocese after St Wilfrid converted the kingdom of Sussex in the seventh century. The seat of the Sussex bishopric was originally located at Selsey Abbey before the Normans moved it to Chichester Cathedral in 1075. Since 1965 Arundel Cathedral has been the seat of the Roman Catholic Bishops of Arundel and Brighton, which covers Sussex and Surrey.</p><br>
<p>Historically, the west of the county has had a tendency towards Catholicism while the east of the county has had a tendency towards non-conformism. The county has been home to several pilgrimage sites, including the shrine (at Chichester Cathedral) to St Richard of Chichester which was destroyed during the Reformation, and the more recent Catholic shrine at West Grinstead. During the Marian persecutions, several Sussex men were martyred for their Protestant faith, including 17 men at Lewes. The Society of Dependents (nicknamed the Cokelers) were a non-conformist sect formed in Loxwood. The Quaker and founding father of Pennsylvania, William Penn worshipped near Thakeham; his UK home from 1677 to 1702 was at nearby Warminghurst. The UKs only Carthusian monastery is situated at St. Hughs Charterhouse, Parkminster near Cowfold. The UK headquarters of the Church of Scientology is situated at Saint Hill Manor, near East Grinstead.</p><br>
<h3>Science</h3><br>
<p>Pell&#39;s equation and the Pell number are both named after 17th century mathematician John Pell. Pell is sometimes credited with inventing the division sign, which has also been attributed to Swiss mathematician Johann Heinrich Rahn, one of his students. In the 19th century, geologist and palaeontologist Gideon Mantell began the scientific study of dinosaurs. In 1822 he was responsible for the discovery and eventual identification of the first fossil teeth, and later much of the skeleton of Iguanodon. Braxton Hicks contractions are named after John Braxton Hicks, the Sussex doctor who in 1872 first described the uterine contractions not resulting in childbirth.</p><br>
<p>In the 20th century, Frederick Soddy won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on radioactive substances, and his investigations into the origin and nature of isotopes. Frederick Gowland Hopkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929 with Christiaan Eijkman, for discovering the growth-stimulating vitamins. Martin Ryle shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1974 with Cornishman Antony Hewish, the first Nobel prize awarded in recognition of astronomical research. While working at the University of Sussex, Harold Kroto won the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Richard Smalley and Robert Curl from Rice University in the USA for the discovery of fullerenes. David Mumford is a mathematician known for distinguished work in algebraic geometry and then for research into vision and pattern theory. He won the International Mathematical Union&#39;s Fields Medal in 1974 and in 2010 was awarded the United States National Medal of Science.</p><br>
<p>In the social sciences, Sussex was home to economist John Maynard Keynes from 1925 to 1946. The founding father of Keynesian economics, he is widely considered to be one of the founders of modern macroeconomics and the most influential economist of the 20th century. David Pilbeam won the 1986 International Prize from the Fyssen Foundation.</p><br>
<p>In the early 20th century, Sussex was at the centre of one of what has been described as British archaeologys greatest hoax&#39;. Bone fragments said to have been collected in 1912 were presented as the fossilised remains of a previously unknown early human, referred to as Piltdown Man. In 1953 the bone fragments were exposed as a forgery, consisting of the lower jawbone of an orangutan deliberately combined with the skull of a fully developed modern human. From 1967 to 1979, Sussex was home to the Isaac Newton Telescope at the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Herstmonceux Castle.</p><br>
<h3>Sport</h3><br>
<p>Sussex has a centuries-long tradition of sport. Sussex has played a key role in the early development of both cricket and stoolball. Cricket is recognised as having been formed in the Weald and Sussex CCC is Englands oldest county cricket club. Slindon Cricket Club dominated the sport for a while in the 18th century. The cricket ground at Arundel Castle traditionally plays host to a Duchess of Norfolks XI which plays the national test sides touring England. The sport of stoolball is also associated with Sussex, which has a claim to be where the sport originated and certainly where its revival took place in the early 20th century. Sussex is represented in the Football League by Brighton & Hove Albion and Crawley Town. Brighton has been a League member since 1920, whereas Crawley was promoted to the League in 2011. Sussex has had its own football association, since 1882 and its own football league, which has since expanded into Surrey, since 1920. In horse racing, Sussex is home to Goodwood, Fontwell Park, Brighton and Plumpton. The All England Jumping Course show jumping facility at Hickstead is situated 8 mi north of Brighton and Hove.</p><br>
<p>In Arlington, near Eastbourne, the local stadium is home to the Eastbourne Eagles speedway team, who race in the UK&#39;s top flight of speedway, the Elite League. Stock Car racing is also held at the same venue.</p><br>
<h3>Cuisine</h3><br>
<p>The historic county is known for its "seven good things of Sussex". These seven things are Pulborough eel, Selsey cockle, Chichester lobster, Rye herring, Arundel mullet, Amberley trout and Bourne wheatear. Sussex is also known for Ashdown Partridge Pudding, Chiddingly Hot pot, Sussex Bacon Pudding, Sussex Hogs&#39; Pudding, Huffed Chicken, Sussex Churdles, Sussex Shepherds Pie, Sussex Pond Pudding, Sussex Blanket Pudding, Sussex Well Pudding, and Chichester Pudding. Sussex is also known for its cakes and biscuits known as Sussex Plum Heavies and Sussex Lardy Johns, while banoffee pie was first created in 1972 in Jevington.</p><br>
<p>The county has vineyards and the 18th century beer brewers, Harveys of Lewes as well as many more recently established breweries. In recent decades Sussex wines have gained international acclaim winning awards including the 2006 Best Sparkling Wine in the World at the Decanter World Wine Awards. Many vineyards make wines using traditional Champagne varieties and methods, of Sussex downland and that of the Champagne region which lies on a latitude 100 mi to the south.</p><br>
<h3>Visual arts</h3><br>
<p>Some of the earliest known art in Sussex is the carvings in the galleries of the Neolithic flint mines at Cissbury on the South Downs near Worthing. From the Roman period, the palace at Fishbourne has the largest in situ collection of mosaics in the UK, while the villa at Bignor contains some of the best preserved Roman mosaics in England.</p><br>
<p>Dating from around the 12th century, the Lewes Group of wall paintings can be found in several churches across the centre of Sussex, some of which are celebrated for their age, extent and quality. Of uncertain origin, the Long Man of Wilmington is Europe’s largest representation of the human form.</p><br>
<p>In the late 18th century three men commissioned important works of the county which ensured that its landscapes and daily life were captured onto canvas. William Burrell of Knepp Castle commissioned Swiss-born watercolourist Samuel Hieronymus Grimm to tour Sussex, producing 900 watercolours of the countys buildings. George Wyndham, 3rd Earl of Egremont of Petworth House was a patron of painters such as JMW Turner and John Constable. John Mad Jack Fuller also commissioned Turner to make a series of paintings which resulted in thirteen finished watercolours of Fullers house at Brightling and the area around it.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century landscape watercolourist Copley Fielding lived in Sussex and illustrator Aubrey Beardsley and painter and sculptor Eric Gill were born in Brighton. Gill went on to found an art colony in Ditchling known as The Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic, which survived until 1989. The 1920s and 1930s saw the creation of some of the best-known works by Edward Burra who was known for his work of Sussex, Paris and Harlem and Eric Ravilious who is known for his paintings of the South Downs.</p><br>
<p>In the early 20th century Vanessa Bell and Duncan Grant, both members of the Bloomsbury Group, lived and worked at Charleston Farmhouse near Firle. Sussex also became a major centre for surrealism in the early 20th century. At West Dean, Edward James was patron to artists including Salvador Dalí and René Magritte while at Farley Farm House near Chiddingly the home of Roland Penrose and Lee Miller was frequented by artists such as Pablo Picasso, Man Ray, Henry Moore, Eileen Agar, Jean Dubuffet, Dorothea Tanning and Max Ernst. Both collections form one of the most important bodies of Surrealist art in Europe.</p><br>
<p>The Grand Canal , a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the longest canal or artificial river in the world and a famous tourist destination. Starting at Beijing, it passes through Tianjin and the provinces of Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the city of Hangzhou, linking the Yellow River and Yangtze River. The oldest parts of the canal date back to the 5th century BC, but the various sections were first connected during the Sui dynasty . The Yuan and Ming dynasties significantly rebuilt the canal and altered its route to supply their capital Beijing.</p><br>
<p>The total length of the Grand Canal is 1,776 km. Its greatest height is reached in the mountains of Shandong, at a summit of 42 m (138 ft). Ships in Chinese canals did not have trouble reaching higher elevations after the pound lock was invented in the 10th century, during the Song dynasty (960–1279), by the government official and engineer Qiao Weiyue. The canal has been admired by many throughout history including Japanese monk Ennin (794–864), Persian historian Rashid al-Din (1247–1318), Korean official Choe Bu (1454–1504), and Italian missionary Matteo Ricci (1552–1610).</p><br>
<p>Historically, periodic flooding of the Yellow River threatened the safety and functioning of the canal. During wartime the high dikes of the Yellow River were sometimes deliberately broken in order to flood advancing enemy troops. This caused disaster and prolonged economic hardships. Despite temporary periods of desolation and disuse, the Grand Canal furthered an indigenous and growing economic market in Chinas urban centers since the Sui period. It has allowed faster trading and has improved Chinas economy. The southern portion remains in heavy use to the present day.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Precursors</h3><br>
<p>In the late Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), Fuchai, King of the State of Wu (whose capital was in present-day Suzhou), ventured north to attack the State of Qi. He ordered a canal be constructed for trading purposes, as well as a means to ship ample supplies north in case his forces should engage the northern states of Song and Lu. This canal became known as the Han Gou (邗沟, "Han Conduit"). Work began in 486 BC, from south of Yangzhou to north of Huai&#39;an in Jiangsu, and within three years the Han Gou had connected the Yangtze with the Huai River by means of existing waterways, lakes, and marshes.</p><br>
<p>Han Gou is known as the second oldest section of the later Grand Canal since the Hong Gou (鴻溝, "Canal of the Flying Geese" or "Far-Flung Canal") most likely preceded it. It linked the Yellow River near Kaifeng to the Si and Bian rivers and became the model for the shape of the Grand Canal in the north. The exact date of the Hong Gou&#39;s construction is uncertain; it is first mentioned by the diplomat Su Qin in 330 BC when discussing state boundaries. The historian Sima Qian (145–90 BC) dated it much earlier than the 4th century BC, attributing it to the work of Yu the Great; modern scholars now consider it to belong to the 6th century BC.</p><br>
<h3>Sui dynasty</h3><br>
<p>The sections of the Grand Canal today in Zhejiang and southern Jiangsu provinces were in large part a creation of the Sui dynasty (581-618), a result of the migration of China’s core economic and agricultural region away from the Yellow River valley in the north and toward the southern provinces. Its main role throughout its history was the transport of grain to the capital. The institution of the Grand Canal by the Qin dynasty and the Sui dynasty, mostly the Sui. also obviated the need for the army to become self-sufficient farmers while posted at the northern frontier, as food supplies could now easily be shipped from south to north over the pass.</p><br>
<p>By the year 600, there were major build ups of silt on the bottom of the Hong Gou canal, obstructing river barges whose drafts were too deep for its waters. The new canal was to pass not Xuzhou but Suzhou, to avoid connecting with the Si River, and instead make a direct connection with the Huai River just west of Lake Hongze. The Grand Canal was fully completed under the second Sui emperor, from the years 604 to 609, first by linking Luoyang to the Yangzhou (and the Yangzi valley), then expanding it to Hangzhou (south), and to Beijing (north). This allowed the southern area to provide grain to the northern province, particularly to troops stationed there. Running alongside and parallel to the canal was an imperial roadway and post offices supporting a courier system. The government also planted an enormous line of trees. The history of the canals construction is handed down in the book Kaiheji (Record of the Opening of the Canal&#39;).</p><br>
<p>The earlier dyke-building project in 587 along the Yellow River—overseen by engineer Liang Rui—established canal lock gates to regulate water levels for the canal. Double slipways were installed to haul boats over when the difference in water levels were too great for the flash lock to operate.</p><br>
<p>Between 604 and 609, Emperor Yang Guang (or Sui Yangdi) of the Sui dynasty ordered a number of canals be dug in a ‘Y’ shape, from Hangzhou in the south to termini in (modern) Beijing and in the capital region along the Yellow River valley. When the canal was completed it linked the systems of the Qiantang River, the Yangtze River, the Huai River, the Yellow River, the Wei River and the Hai River. Its southern section, running between Hangzhou and the Yangtze, was named the Jiangnan River (the river ‘South of the Yangtze’). The canal’s central portions stretched from Yangzhou to Luoyang; the section between the Yangtze and the Huai continued to the Shanyang River; and the next section connected the Huai to the Yellow River and was called the Tongji Channel. The northernmost portion, linking Beijing and Luoyang, was named the Yongji Channel. This portion of the canal was used to transport troops to what is now the North Korean border region during the Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598–614). After the canal&#39;s completion in 609, Emperor Yang led a recorded 105 km long naval flotilla of boats from the north down to his southern capital at Yangzhou.</p><br>
<p>The Grand Canal at this time was not a continuous, man-made canal but a collection of often non-contiguous artificial cuts and canalised or natural rivers.</p><br>
<h3>Tang to Yuan dynasties</h3><br>
<p>Although the Tang dynasty (618–907) capital at Chang&#39;an was the most thriving metropolis of China in its day, it was the city of Yangzhou—in proximity to the Grand Canal—that was the economic hub of the Tang era. Besides being the headquarters for the government salt monopoly and the largest pre-modern industrial production center of the empire, Yangzhou was also the geographical midpoint along the north-south trade axis, and so became the major center for southern goods shipped north. One of the greatest benefits of the canal system in the Tang dynasty—and subsequent dynasties—was that it reduced the cost of shipping grain that had been collected in taxes from the Yangtze River Delta to northern China. Minor additions to the canal were made after the Sui period to cut down on travel time, but overall no fundamental differences existed between the Sui Grand Canal and the Tang Grand Canal.</p><br>
<p>By the year 735, it was recorded that about 149,685,400 kg of grain were shipped annually along the canal. To ensure smooth travel of grain shipments, Transport Commissioner Liu Yan (in office from 763 to 779) had special river barge ships designed and constructed to fit the depths of each section of the entire canal.</p><br>
<p>After the An Shi Rebellion (755–763), the economy of northern China was greatly damaged and never recovered due to wars and to constant flooding of the Yellow River. Such a case occurred in the year 858 when an enormous flood along the Grand Canal inundated thousands of acres of farmland and killed tens of thousands of people in the North China Plain. Such an unfortunate event could reduce the legitimacy of a ruling dynasty by causing others to perceive it as having lost the Mandate of Heaven; this was a good reason for dynastic authorities to maintain a smooth and efficient canal system.</p><br>
<p>The city of Kaifeng grew to be a major hub, later becoming the capital of the Song dynasty (960–1279). Although the Tang and Song dynasty international seaports—the greatest being Guangzhou and Quanzhou, respectively—and maritime foreign trade brought merchants great fortune, it was the Grand Canal within China that spurred the greatest amount of economic activity and commercial profit. During the Song and earlier periods, barge ships occasionally crashed and wrecked along the Shanyang Yundao section of the Grand Canal while passing the double slipways, and more often than not those were then robbed of the tax grain by local bandits. This prompted Qiao Weiyue, an Assistant Commissioner of Transport for Huainan, to invent a double-gate system known as the pound lock in the year 984. This allowed ships to wait within a gated space while the water could be drained to appropriate levels; the Chinese also built roofed hangars over the space to add further protection for the ships.</p><br>
<p>Much of the Grand Canal south of the Yellow River was ruined for several years after 1128, when Du Chong decided to break the dykes and dams holding back the waters of the Yellow River in order to decimate the oncoming Jurchen invaders during the Jin–Song wars. The Jurchen Jin dynasty continually battled with the Song in the region between the Huai River and the Yellow River; this warfare led to the dilapidation of the canal until the Mongols invaded in the 13th century AD and began necessary repairs.</p><br>
<p>During the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) the capital of China was moved to Beijing, eliminating the need for the canal arm flowing west to Kaifeng or Luoyang. A summit section was dug across the foothills of the Shandong massif during the 1280s, shortening the overall length by as much as 700 km (making the total length about 1800 km) and linking Hangzhou and Beijing with a direct north-south waterway for the first time. As in the Song and Jin era, the canal fell into disuse and dilapidation during the Yuan dynasty&#39;s decline.</p><br>
<h3>Ming dynasty restoration</h3><br>
<p>The Grand Canal was renovated almost in its entirety between 1411 and 1415 during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). A magistrate of Jining, Shandong sent a memorandum to the throne of the Yongle Emperor protesting the current inefficient means of transporting 4,000,000 dan (428,000,000 liters) of grain a year by means of transferring it along several different rivers and canals in barge types that went from deep to shallow after the Huai River, and then transferred back onto deep barges once the shipment of grain reached the Yellow River. Chinese engineers built a dam to divert the Wen River to the southwest in order to feed 60% of its water north into the Grand Canal, with the remainder going south. They dug four large reservoirs in Shandong to regulate water levels, which allowed them to avoid pumping water from local sources and water tables. Between 1411 and 1415 a total of 165,000 laborers dredged the canal bed in Shandong and built new channels, embankments, and canal locks.</p><br>
<p>The Yongle Emperor moved the Ming capital from Nanjing to Beijing in 1403. This move deprived Nanjing of its status as chief political center of China. The reopening of the Grand Canal also benefited Suzhou over Nanjing since the former was in a better position on the main artery of the Grand Canal, and so it became Ming China&#39;s greatest economic center. The only other viable contender with Suzhou in the Jiangnan region was Hangzhou, but it was located 200 km further down the Grand Canal and away from the main delta. Therefore, the Grand Canal served to make or break the economic fortunes of certain cities along its route, and served as the economic lifeline of indigenous trade within China.</p><br>
<p>The scholar Gu Yanwu of the early Qing dynasty (1644–1912) estimated that the previous Ming dynasty had to employ 47,004 full-time laborers recruited by the lijia corvée system in order to maintain the entire canal system. It is known that 121,500 soldiers and officers were needed simply to operate the 11,775 government grain barges in the mid-15th century.</p><br>
<p>Besides its function as a grain shipment route and major vein of river borne indigenous trade in China, the Grand Canal had long been a government-operated courier route as well. In the Ming dynasty, official courier stations were placed at intervals of 35 to 45 km. Each courier station was assigned a different name, all of which were popularized in travel songs of the period.</p><br>
<h3>Qing dynasty and 20th century China</h3><br>
<p>The Manchus invaded China in the mid-17th century, allowed through the northern passes by the Chinese general Wu Sangui once the Ming capital at Beijing had fallen into the hands of a rebel army. The Manchus established the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), and under their leadership the Grand Canal was overseen and maintained just as in earlier times.</p><br>
<p>In 1855, the Yellow River flooded and changed its course, severing the course of the canal in Shandong. This was foreseen by a Chinese official in 1447, who remarked that the flood-prone Yellow River made the Grand Canal like a throat that could be easily strangled (leading some officials to request restarting the grain shipments through the East China Sea). Because of various factors – the difficulty of crossing the Yellow River, the increased development of an alternative sea route for grain-ships, and the opening of the Tianjin-Pukou Railway and the Beijing-Hankou Railway – the canal languished and for decades the northern and southern parts remained separate. Many of the canal sections fell into disrepair, and some parts were returned to flat fields. Even today, the Grand Canal has not fully recovered from this disaster. After the founding of the People&#39;s Republic of China in 1949, the need for economic development led the authorities to order heavy reconstruction work.</p><br>
<p>The economic importance of the canal likely will continue. The governments of the Shandong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces planned dredging meant to increase shipping capacity by 40 percent by 2012.</p><br>
<p>On June 22, 2014, The Grand Canal was listed as a World Heritage Site, at the 2014 Conference on World Heritage.</p><br>
<h3>Historical sections</h3><br>
<p>As well as its present-day course, fourteen centuries of canal-building have left the Grand Canal with a number of historical sections. Some of these have disappeared, others are still partially extant, and others form the basis for the modern canal. The following are the most important, but do not form an exhaustive list.</p><br>
<h4>Jia Canal</h4><br>
<p>In 12 BC, to solve the problem of the Grand Canal having to use 160 km of the perilous course of the Yellow River in Northern Jiangsu, a man named Li Hualong opened the Jia Canal. Named after the Jia River whose course it followed, it ran 140 km from Xiazhen (modern Weishan) on the shore of Shandongs Weishan Lake to Suqian in Jiangsu. The construction of the Jia Canal left only 100 km of Yellow River navigation on the Grand Canal, from Suqian to Huaian, which by 1688 had been removed by the construction of the Middle Canal by Jin Fu.</p><br>
<h4>Nanyang New Canal</h4><br>
<p>In 1566, to escape the problems caused by flooding of the Yellow River around Yutai (now on the western shore of Weishan Lake), the Nanyang New Canal was opened. It ran for 75 km from Nanyang (now Nanyang Town in the centre of Weishan Lake) to the small settlement of Liucheng (in the vicinity of modern Gaolou Village, Weishan County, Shandong) north of Xuzhou City. This change in effect moved the Grand Canal from the low-lying and flood-prone land west of Weishan Lake onto the marginally higher land to its east. It was fed by rivers flowing east-west from the borders of the Shandong massif.</p><br>
<h4>Huitong Canal</h4><br>
<p>North of the Jizhou Canal summit section, the Huitong Canal ran downhill, fed principally by the River Wen, to join the Wei River at the city of Linqing. In 1289, a geological survey preceded its one-year construction. The Huitong Canal, built by an engineer called Ma Zhizhen, ran across sharply sloping ground and the high concentration of locks gave it the nicknames chahe or zhahe, i.e. the river of locks. Its great number of feeder springs (between two and four hundred, depending on the counting method and season of the year) also led to it being called the quanhe or river of springs.</p><br>
<h4>Jizhou Canal</h4><br>
<p>This, the Grand Canal’s first true summit section, was engineered by the Mongol Oqruqči in 1238 to connect Jining to the southern end of the Huitong Canal. It rose to a height of 42 metres (138 ft) above the Yangtze, but environmental and technical factors left it with chronic water shortages until it was re-engineered in 1411 by Song Li of the Ming. Song Li&#39;s improvements, recommended by a local man named Bai Ying, included damming the rivers Wen and Guang and drawing lateral canals from them to feed reservoir lakes at the very summit, at a small town called Nanwang.</p><br>
<h4>Duke Huan's Conduit</h4><br>
<p>In 369 AD, General Huan Wen of the Eastern Jin dynasty connected the shallow river valleys of the Huai and the Yellow. He achieved this by joining two of these rivers&#39; tributaries, the Si and the Ji respectively, at their closest point, across a low watershed of the Shandong massif. Huan Wen’s primitive summit canal became a model for the engineers of the Jizhou Canal.</p><br>
<h4>Yilou Canal</h4><br>
<p>The Shanyang Canal originally opened onto the Yangtze a short distance south of Yangzhou. As the north shore of the Yangtze gradually silted up to create the sandbank island of Guazhou, it became necessary for boats crossing to and from the Jiangnan Canal to sail the long way around the eastern edge of that island. After a particularly rough crossing of the Yangtze from Zhenjiang, the local prefect realised that a canal dug directly across Guazhou would slash the journey time and so make the crossing safer. The Yilou Canal was opened in 738 AD and still exists, though not as part of the modern Grand Canal route.</p><br>
<h2>Modern course</h2><br>
<p>The Grand Canal nominally runs between Beijing and Hangzhou over a total length of 1,794 km, however, only the section from Hangzhou to Jining is currently navigable. Its course is today divided into seven sections. From south to north these are the Jiangnan Canal, the Li Canal, the Zhong Canal, the Lu Canal, the South Canal, the North Canal, and the Tonghui River.</p><br>
<h3>Jiangnan Canal</h3><br>
<p>This southernmost section of the canal runs from Hangzhou in Zhejiang, where the canal connects with the Qiantang River, to Zhenjiang in Jiangsu, where it meets the Yangtze. After leaving Hangzhou the canal passes around the eastern border of Lake Tai, through the major cities of Jiaxing, Suzhou, Wuxi and Changzhou before reaching Zhenjiang. The Jiangnan (or ‘South of the Yangtze’) Canal is very heavily used by barge traffic bringing coal and construction materials to the booming delta. It is generally a minimum of 100 metres wide in the congested city centres, and often two or three times this width in the countryside beyond. In recent years, broad bypass canals have been dug around the major cities to reduce ‘traffic jams’.</p><br>
<h3>Li Canal</h3><br>
<p>This ‘Inner Canal’ runs between the Yangtze and Huai&#39;an in Jiangsu, skirting the Shaobo, Gaoyou and Hongze lakes of central Jiangsu. Here the land lying to the west of the canal is higher than its bed while the land to the east is lower. Traditionally the Shanghe region west of the canal has been prone to frequent flooding, while the Xiahe region to its east has been hit by less frequent but immensely damaging inundations caused by failure of the Grand Canal levees. Recent works have allowed floodwaters from Shanghe to be diverted safely out to sea.</p><br>
<h3>Zhong Canal</h3><br>
<p>This ‘Middle Canal’ section runs from Huaian to Weishan Lake, passing through Luoma Lake and following more than one course, the result of the impact of centuries of Yellow River flooding. After Pizhou, a northerly course passes through Taierzhuang to enter Weishan Lake at Hanzhuang bound for Nanyang and Jining (this course is the remnant of the New Nanyang Canal of 1566 – see below). A southerly course passes close by Xuzhou and enters Weishan Lake near Peixian. This latter course is less used today.</p><br>
<h3>Lu Canal</h3><br>
<p>At Weishan Lake, both courses enter Shandong province. From here to Linqing, the canal is called the Lu or ‘Shandong’ Canal. It crosses a series of lakes – Zhaoyang, Dushan and Nanyang – which nominally form a continuous body of water. At present, diversions of water mean that the lakes are often largely dry land. North of the northernmost Nanyang Lake is the city of Jining. Further on, about 30 km north of Jining, the highest elevation of the canal (38.5 m above sea level) is reached at the town of Nanwang. In the 1950s a new canal was dug to the south of the old summit section. The old summit section is now dry, while the new canal holds too little water to be navigable. About 50 km further north, passing close by Dongping Lake, the canal reaches the Yellow River. By this point waterless, it no longer communicates with the river. It reappears again in Liaocheng City on the north bank where, intermittently flowing through a renovated stone channel, it reaches the city of Linqing on the Shandong – Hebei border.</p><br>
<h3>Southern Canal</h3><br>
<p>The fifth section of the canal extends for a distance of 524 km from Linqing to Tianjin along the course of the canalised Wei River. Though one of the northernmost sections, its name derives from its position relative to Tianjin. The Wei River at this point is heavily polluted while drought and industrial water extraction have left it too low to be navigable. The canal, now in Hebei province, passes through the cities of Dezhou and Cangzhou. Although to spectators the canal appears to be a deep waterway in these city centres, its depth is maintained by weirs and the canal is all but dry where it passes through the surrounding countryside. At its end the canal joins the Hai River in the centre of Tianjin City before turning north-west.</p><br>
<h3>Northern Canal and Tonghui River</h3><br>
<p>In Tianjin the canal heads northwest, for a short time following the course of the Yongding, a tributary of the Hai River, before branching off toward Tongzhou on the edge of the municipality of Beijing. It is here that the modern canal stops and that a Grand Canal Cultural Park has been built. During the Yuan dynasty a further canal, the Tonghui River, connected Tongzhou with a wharf called the Houhai or "rear sea" in central Beijing. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, however, the water level in the Tonghui River dropped and it was impossible for ships to travel from Tongzhou to Beijing. Tongzhou became the northern shipping terminus of the canal. Cargoes were unloaded at Tongzhou and transported to Beijing by land. The Tonghui river still exists as a wide, concrete lined storm-channel and drain for the suburbs of Beijing.</p><br>
<h3>East Zhejiang Canal</h3><br>
<p>The Eastern Zhejiang Canal (simplified Chinese: 浙东运河; traditional Chinese: 浙東運河; pinyin: zhè dōng yùn hé; a.k.a. 杭甬運河 (Hangyong Canal)) is located in Zhejiang province, China. Its west end is in Xixing Street, Binjiang District, Hangzhou City, crossing Cao&#39;e River and Shaoxing City to its east end, the Yong River estuary in Ningbo City. The canal is 239 kilometres (149 mi) long. Early canal construction took place in the Shanyin old canal in Shaoxing City, in the Spring and Autumn period (approximately 771 to 476 BC). In the third century AD, an official named He Xun supervised the construction of Xixing Canal, establishing the complete Eastern Zhejiang Canal.</p><br>
<p>In the Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279), the capital was established at Linan, which meant that the Eastern Zhejiang Canal became an important shipping channel. From the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) to the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), the Eastern Zhejiang Canal lost its privilege but still remained navigable. In recent years, because of newer modes of transportation, the canal has been gradually replaced. The reconstruction of the canal began in 2002, by 2007 it was partially navigable, and the renovation project finished in 2009, though the Ningbo section was not navigable until the end of 2013.</p><br>
<p>In May 2013, the Eastern Zhejiang Canal was listed in the seventh group of Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level, and was included in the Grand Canal. In November 2008, as an extension of Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal and the passage between the Grand Canal and the Maritime Silk Road, the Eastern Zhejiang Canal was placed into the nomination file in the UNESCO World Heritage programme. In 2014, with Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal and Sui & Tang Grand Canal, the Eastern Zhejiang Canal became one World Heritage site.</p><br>
<h2>Elevations</h2><br>
<p>Though the canal nominally crosses the watersheds of five river systems, in reality the variation between these is so low that it has only a single summit section. The elevation of the canal bed varies from 1 m below sea level at Hangzhou to 38.5 m above at its summit. At Beijing it reaches 27 m, fed by streams flowing downhill from the mountains to the west. The water flows from Beijing toward Tianjin, from Nanwang north toward Tianjin, and from Nanwang south toward Yangzhou. The water level in the Jiangnan Canal remains scarcely above sea level (the Zhenjiang ridge is 12 meters higher than the Yangzi River).</p><br>
<h2>Uses</h2><br>
<h3>Transportation</h3><br>
<p>From the Tang to Qing dynasties, the Grand Canal served as the main artery between northern and southern China and was essential for the transport of grain to Beijing. Although it was mainly used for shipping grain, it also transported other commodities and the corridor along the canal developed into an important economic belt. Records show that, at its height, every year more than 8,000 boats transported four to six million dan (240,000–360,000 metric tons) of grain. The convenience of transport also enabled rulers to lead inspection tours to southern China. In the Qing dynasty, the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors made twelve trips to the south, on all occasions but one reaching Hangzhou.</p><br>
<p>The Grand Canal also enabled cultural exchange and political integration to mature between the north and south of China. The canal even made a distinct impression on some of Chinas early European visitors. Marco Polo recounted the Grand Canals arched bridges as well as the warehouses and prosperous trade of its cities in the 13th century. The famous Roman Catholic missionary Matteo Ricci travelled from Nanjing to Beijing on the canal at the end of the 16th century.</p><br>
<p>Since the founding of the People&#39;s Republic of China in 1949, the canal has been used primarily to transport vast amounts of bulk goods such as bricks, gravel, sand, diesel and coal. The Jianbi shiplocks on the Yangtze are currently handling some 75,000,000 tons each year, and the Li Canal is forecast to reach 100,000,000 tons in the next few years.</p><br>
<h3>South-North Water Transfer Project</h3><br>
<p>The Grand Canal is currently being upgraded to serve as the Eastern Route of the South-North Water Transfer Project. Additional amounts of water from the Yangtze will be drawn into the canal in Jiangdu City, where a giant 400 m3/s pumping station was already built in the 1980s, and is then fed uphill by pumping stations along the route and through a tunnel under the Yellow River, from where it can flow downhill to reservoirs near Tianjin. Construction on the Eastern Route officially began on December 27, 2002, and water was supposed to reach Tianjin by 2012. However, water pollution has affected the viability of this project.</p><br>
<h2>Notable travellers</h2><br>
<p>In 1169, with China divided between the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in the north and the Southern Song dynasty in the south, the Chinese emperor sent a delegation to the Jurchen to wish their ruler well for the New Year. A scholar-official named Lou Yue, secretary to the delegation, recorded the journey, much of which was made upon the Grand Canal, and submitted his Diary of a Journey to the North to the emperor on his return.</p><br>
<p>In 1170 the poet, politician and historian Lu You travelled upon the Grand Canal from Shaoxing to the river Yangtze, recording his progress in a diary.</p><br>
<p>In 1345 Arab traveler Ibn Battuta traveled China and journeyed through the Abe Hayat river (Grand Canal) up to the capital Khanbalik (Beijing).</p><br>
<p>In 1488, the shipwrecked Korean scholar Choe Bu travelled the length of the Grand Canal on his way from Zhejiang to Beijing (and on to Korea), and left a detailed account of his trip.</p><br>
<p>In 1600, Matteo Ricci, a famous Italian Christian missionary, traveled to Beijing from Nanjing via the Grand Canal waterway to try to get the support of Emperor of Ming Dynasty with the help of Wang Zhongde, the Director of the Board of Rites in the central government of China at the time.</p><br>
<p>In 1793, after a largely fruitless diplomatic mission to Jehol, a large part of Lord Macartney&#39;s embassy returned south to the Yangtze delta on the Grand Canal.</p><br>
<p>Yosemite Valley is a glacial valley in Yosemite National Park in the western Sierra Nevada mountains of Central California. The valley is about 7.5 miles  long and approximately 3000-3500 feet deep, surrounded by high granite summits such as Half Dome and El Capitan, and densely forested with pines. The valley is drained by the Merced River, and a multitude of streams and waterfalls flow into it, including Tenaya, Illilouette, Yosemite and Bridalveil Creeks. Yosemite Falls is the highest waterfall in North America, and is a big attraction especially in the spring when the water flow is at its peak. The valley is renowned for its natural beauty, and is widely regarded as the centerpiece of Yosemite National Park, attracting visitors from around the world.</p><br>
<p>The Valley is the main attraction in the park for the majority of visitors, and a bustling hub of activity during "tourist season" in the summer months. On July 2, 2011 there was a record 20,851 visitors to the valley.</p><br>
<p>Most visitors enter the valley from roads to the west and pass through the famous Tunnel View entrance. Visitor facilities are located in the center of the valley. There are both hiking trail loops that stay within the valley and trailheads that lead to higher elevations, all of which afford glimpses of the park&#39;s many scenic wonders.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Yosemite Valley is located on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada mountains, 150 miles (240 km) due east of San Francisco. It stretches for 7.5 miles (12 km) in a roughly east-west direction, with an average width of about 1 mile (1.6 km).</p><br>
<p>Yosemite Valley represents only one percent of the park area, but this is where most visitors arrive and stay. More than half a dozen creeks tumble from hanging valleys at the top of granite cliffs that can rise 3000–3500 feet (914–1067 m) above the valley floor, which itself is 4000 ft (1219 m) above sea level. These streams combine into the Merced River, which flows out from the western end of the valley, down the rest of its canyon to the San Joaquin Valley. The flat floor of Yosemite Valley holds both forest and large open meadows, which provide breathtaking views of the surrounding crests and waterfalls.</p><br>
<p>Below is a description of these features, looking first at the walls above, moving west to east as a visitor does when entering the valley, then visiting the waterfalls and other water features, returning east to west with the flow of water.</p><br>
<p>The first view of Yosemite Valley many visitors see is the Tunnel View. So many paintings were made from a viewpoint nearby that the National Park Service named that viewpoint Artist Point.</p><br>
<p>The view from the lower (western) end of the Valley contains the great granite monolith El Capitan on the left, and Cathedral Rocks on the right with Bridalveil Fall. Just past this spot the Valley suddenly widens with the Cathedral Spires, then the pointed obelisk of Sentinel Rock to the south. Across the Valley on the northern side are the Three Brothers, rising one above the other like gables built on the same angle – the highest crest is Eagle Peak, with the two below known as the Middle and Lower Brothers.</p><br>
<p>To this point the Valley has been curving gently to the left (north). Now a grand curve back to the right begins, with Yosemite Falls on the north, followed by the Royal Arches, topped by North Dome. Opposite, to the south, is Glacier Point, 3,200 feet (975 m) above the Valley floor. At this point the Valley splits in two, one section slanting northeast, with the other curving from south to southeast. Between them, at the eastern end of the valley, is Half Dome, the most famous and most recognizable natural feature in the Sierra Nevada. Above and to the northeast of Half Dome is Clouds Rest; at 9926 feet (3025 m), the highest point around Yosemite Valley.</p><br>
<h3>Water</h3><br>
<p>Snow melting in the Sierra forms creeks and lakes. In the surrounding region, these creeks flow to the edge of the Valley to form cataracts and waterfalls.</p><br>
<p>A fan of creeks and forks of the Merced River take drainage from the Sierra crest and combine at Merced Lake. The Merced then flows down to the end of its canyon (Little Yosemite Valley), where it begins what is often called the Giant Staircase. The first drop is Nevada Fall, which drops 594 feet (181 m), bouncing off the granite slope below it. Below is Vernal Fall, 317 feet (97 m) high, one of the most picturesque waterfalls in the Valley. The Merced then descends rapids to meet Illilouette Creek, which drops from the valley rim to form Illilouette Fall. They combine at the base of the gorges that contain each stream, and then flow around the Happy Isles to meet Tenaya Creek at the eastern end of Yosemite Valley proper.</p><br>
<p>Tenaya Creek flows southwest from Tenaya Lake and down Tenaya Canyon, finally flowing between Half Dome and North Dome before joining the Merced River. The following falls tumble from the Valley rim to join it at various points:</p><br>
<p>Yosemite Falls 2,425 ft Upper Yosemite Fall 1,430 ft, the middle cascades 670 ft, and Lower Yosemite Fall 320 ft. (Yosemite Creek)</p><br>
<p>Snow Creek Falls 2,140 ft</p><br>
<p>Sentinel Falls 1,920 ft</p><br>
<p>Ribbon Fall 1,612 ft</p><br>
<p>Royal Arch Cascade 1,250 ft</p><br>
<p>Lehamite Falls 1,180 ft</p><br>
<p>Staircase Falls 1,020 ft</p><br>
<p>Bridalveil Fall 620 ft. (Bridalveil Creek)</p><br>
<p>Nevada Fall 594 ft</p><br>
<p>Silver Strand Falls 574 ft</p><br>
<p>Vernal Fall 318 ft</p><br>
<h2>Natural Yosemite Valley</h2><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>The features in Yosemite Valley are made of granitic rock emplaced as plutons miles deep during the late Cretaceous. Over time the Sierra Nevada was uplifted, exposing this rock to erosion at the surface.</p><br>
<p>The oldest of these granitic rocks, at 114 million years, occur along the Merced River Gorge west of the valley. The El Capitan pluton intruded the valley, forming most of the granitic rock that makes up much of the central part of the valley, including Cathedral Rocks, Three Brothers, and El Capitan. The youngest Yosemite Valley pluton is the 87-million-year-old Half Dome granodiorite, which makes up most of the rock at Glacier Point, the Royal Arches, and its namesake, Half Dome.</p><br>
<p>For the last 30 million years, glaciers have periodically filled much of the valley. The most current glaciation, the Wisconsinian was not, however, the most severe. Ice ages previous to the Wisconsinian were colder and lasted longer. Their glaciers were huge and covered nearly all the landmarks around Yosemite Valley except Half Dome, Eagle Peak, Sentinel Dome, and the top of El Capitan. Wisconsinian glaciers, however, only reached Bridalveil Fall in the valley. The glaciers widened the valley, but much of its width is in fact due to previous stream erosion and mass wasting along vertical joints in the valley&#39;s walls.</p><br>
<p>After the retreat of many of these glaciers, a stand of Ancient Lake Yosemite developed. The valley floor owes its flatness to sediment deposited by these stands (the last glaciers in the valley were small and did not remove much old lake sediment). The last stand of Lake Yosemite was about 5.5 miles (8.9 km) long and was impounded by a terminal moraine near the base of El Capitan. It was later filled by sediment, becoming a swampy meadow.</p><br>
<p>The parallel Tenaya Canyon and Little Yosemite Canyon glaciers were, at their largest, 2,000 feet (600 m) deep where they flowed into the Yosemite Valley near the base of Half Dome. They also formed Cloud&#39;s Rest behind Half Dome as an arête.</p><br>
<p>Near Glacier Point there is 2,000 feet (600 m) of mostly glacial sediment with at least six separate sequences of Lake Yosemite sediments. Here, huge and highly erosive pre-Wisconsinian glaciers excavated the bedrock valley floor, and much smaller Wisconsinian glaciers deposited glacial debris.</p><br>
<h3>Ecology</h3><br>
<p>The biological community on the floor of Yosemite Valley is a diverse one, with more than 400 species of grasses and wildflowers and thousands of species of insects having been identified there. At the most general level, the valley can be classified as a dry yellow pine forest with a number of large open meadows. Plant and animal species that make up a significant part of this natural community include:</p><br>
<p>Trees – ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, sugar pine, white fir, incense-cedar, California black oak, interior live oak, coast Douglas-fir, California laurel, bigleaf maple, Scouler&#39;s willow, Pacific dogwood, white alder, western balsam poplar</p><br>
<p>Shrubs – whiteleaf manzanita, mountain misery, western azalea, American dogwood, buckbrush, deer brush, sierra gooseberry</p><br>
<p>Wildflowers – Indian pink, soap plant, California poppy, miner&#39;s lettuce, purple Chinese houses, purple milkweed, Pacific starflower, western buttercup, pineapple weed</p><br>
<p>Mammals – California ground squirrel, western gray squirrel, chickaree, mule deer, American black bear, bobcat, coyote</p><br>
<p>Birds – dark-eyed junco, mountain chickadee, black-headed grosbeak, white-headed woodpecker, Steller&#39;s jay, American dipper, common raven</p><br>
<p>Reptiles – Gilbert&#39;s skink, northern alligator lizard, rattlesnake</p><br>
<p>Amphibians – Sierra Nevada salamander</p><br>
<h3>Hiking</h3><br>
<p>Several trails lead out of the Valley, including</p><br>
<p>The John Muir Trail --- running 212 miles (341 km) to Mount Whitney</p><br>
<p>The Mist Trail --- with views of Vernal Fall and Nevada Fall</p><br>
<p>The Four Mile Trail --- leading to Glacier Point.</p><br>
<p>The Yosemite Falls Trail --- to the top of Yosemite Falls</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The recent history of the Valley is the history of human visitors, first Native Americans, then European settlers, then visitors from around the world.</p><br>
<h3>Native Americans in Yosemite</h3><br>
<p>Native Americans have lived in the Yosemite region for as long as 8,000 years. The first people that we have record of was a band of American Indians who called the Valley "Ah-wah-nee" and themselves the Ahwahnechee. This group had trading and family ties to Mono Lake Paiutes from the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada. They annually burned the vegetation on the Valley floor, which promoted the black oak and kept the meadows and forests open. This protected the supply of their principal food, acorns, and reduced the chance of ambush. At the time of first European contact, this band was led by Chief Tenaya (Teneiya), who was raised by his mother among the Mono Lake Paiutes.</p><br>
<h3>The Mariposa Battalion and the first tourists</h3><br>
<p>The first non-natives to see Yosemite Valley were probably members of the 1833 Joseph Walker Party, which was the first to cross the Sierra Nevada from east to west. The first descriptions of Yosemite, however, came nearly 20 years later. The 1849 California Gold Rush led to conflicts between miners and natives, and the state formed the volunteer Mariposa Battalion as a punitive expedition against natives in the Yosemite area. In 1851, the Battalion was led by Major Jim Savage, whose trading post on the Merced River the Awaneechee had raided. This and other missions resulted in Chief Teneiya and the Awaneechee spending months on a reservation in the San Joaquin Valley. The band returned the next year to the Valley, but took refuge among the Mono Paiutes after further conflicts with miners. Most of the Awaneechee (along with Teneiya) were chased back to the Valley and killed by the Paiutes after violating hospitality by stealing horses.</p><br>
<p>While the members of that first expedition of the Mariposa Battalion had heard rumours of what could be found up the Merced River, none were prepared for what they saw March 27, 1851 from what is now called Old Inspiration Point (close to the better visited Tunnel View). Dr. Lafayette Bunnell later wrote:</p><br>
<p>Camping that night on the Valley floor, the group agreed with the suggestion of Dr. Bunnell to call it "Yo-sem-i-ty", mistakenly believing that was the native name. Bunnell was also the first of many to underestimate the height of the Valley walls. A San Francisco newspaper demanded that he cut his estimate of the rim height—at 1500 feet (450 m), already under by half—in half again before they would publish it.</p><br>
<p>James Hutchings—who organized the first tourist party to the Valley in 1855—and artist Thomas Ayers generated much of the earliest publicity about Yosemite, creating articles and entire magazine issues about the Valley. Ayres&#39; highly detailed angularly exaggerated artwork and his written accounts were distributed nationally and an art exhibition of his drawings was held in New York City.</p><br>
<p>Two of Hutchings&#39; first group of tourists, Milton and Houston Mann, built the first toll route into the valley, with development of the first hotels in the area and other trails quickly following. Orchards were planted and livestock grazed in Valley meadows, with damage to native ecosystems as the result.</p><br>
<h3>Yosemite: The first park</h3><br>
<p>The work of Ayres gave easterners an appreciation for Yosemite Valley and started a movement to preserve it. Influential figures such as Galen Clark, clergyman Thomas Starr King and leading landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted were among those who urged Senator John Conness of California to try to preserve Yosemite.</p><br>
<p>President Abraham Lincoln signed a bill on June 30, 1864 granting Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of giant sequoias to the State of California "for public use, resort and recreation," the two tracts "shall be inalienable for all time". This was the first time in history that a federal government had set aside scenic lands simply to protect them and to allow for their enjoyment by all people.</p><br>
<p>Simply designating an area a park isnt sufficient to protect it. California did not set up an administration for the park until 1866, when the state appointed Galen Clark as the parks guardian. An 11-year struggle followed to resolve homesteading claims in the valley. The challenge of increasing tourism, with the need to first build stagecoach roads, then the Yosemite Valley Railroad, along with hotels and other facilities in and around the Valley was met during the rest of the 19th century. But much environmental damage was caused to the valley itself at that time. The problems that Yosemite Park had under state control was one of the factors in establishing Yellowstone National Park as the first completely national park in 1872.</p><br>
<p>Due to the difficulty of traveling there, early visitors to the valley came for several weeks to a couple of months, often as entire families with many possessions. Early hotels were therefore set up for extended stays and catered primarily to wealthy patrons who could spend extended periods away from home. One of these hotels—the Wawona Hotel, built in the 1880s—still operates.</p><br>
<p>After the Valley became a park, the surrounding territory was still subject to logging, mining, and grazing. John Muir publicized the damage to the subalpine meadows that surround the Valley and in 1890, the government created a national park that included a much larger territory—enclosing Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove. As with Yellowstone, the new federal park was under USA Army jurisdiction until 1914. In 1906, the state ceded the Valley and Mariposa Grove to the federal government. The National Park Service, on its creation in 1916, took over Yosemite.</p><br>
<h2>Modern history</h2><br>
<p>Yosemite Valley is listed as a National Historic District and as a California Historical Landmark. After the creation of the Park Service, many separate hotel owners held separate concession contracts. The Yosemite Park Company had built the Yosemite Lodge and Yosemite Village had its own group of merchants. Fire had destroyed a number of the original valley hotels and concession owners came and went until Park Service forced the two largest companies to merge in order that one single concession contract could be given. In 1925 the two family-run companies became the Yosemite Park and Curry Company and went on to build and run the Ahwahnee Hotel as the company headquarters for years, introducing a number of traditions, including the Bracebridge dinner.</p><br>
<p>Curry Village was the site from where villagers and visitors watched the famous Yosemite Firefall. This "fall" was large batches of red hot embers dropped from Glacier Point. The Park Service stopped this practice in 1969 as part of their long process of de-emphasizing artificial park attractions.</p><br>
<p>On July 6, 1996 a massive rock slide, weighing an estimated 60,000–80,000 tons, crashed 1800 feet (550 m) into the valley from the east side of Glacier Point, travelling at over 160 mph (260 km/h). Dust blanketed that part of the valley for days, and the wind speed in front of the slide is estimated to have been 300 mph (480 km/h). One person was killed in the slide.</p><br>
<p>Yosemite is now a world rock climbing attraction. The massive big walls of granite have been climbed countless times since the 1950s and have pushed climbers&#39; abilities to new heights. While climbers traditionally take several days to climb the monoliths, bivvying on the rock faces, modern climbing techniques help climbers ascend the cliffs in mere hours. Many climbers stay at Camp 4 before beginning big wall climbs.</p><br>
<p>Half Dome figures prominently on the reverse side of the California state quarter. Hiking to the top of Half Dome is one of the most popular hikes from the valley, and very crowded. The park now requires permits to use the trail, and in 2011 the permits sold out very quickly after becoming available. The park now uses a lottery system for hikers to apply for permits.</p><br>
<h3>Merced River Plan</h3><br>
<p>In 1987 Congress designated 122 miles of the Merced as a Wild and Scenic River. Yosemite National Park contains 81 of these miles, and the valley contains 8 of those miles. This designation will "... preserve the Merced River in free-flowing condition and to protect the water quality and the outstandingly remarkable values (ORVs) that make the river worthy of designation.” In March 2014, the park system released the Merced Wild and Scenic River Comprehensive Management Plan/EIS to address the preservation of the river, safety, and to improve the visitor experience in the park. The plan will restore meadows and river bank areas and remove non-essential roads. Camping capacity will increase 37%, and recreational services will be expanded. The plan calls for an 8% increase in parking for day use visitors to Yosemite Valley, including a new 300-car parking lot. The plan will allow the valley to accommodate a peak of 20,100 visitors per day.</p><br>
<p>The plan has been criticized for prioritizing park visitors over the preservation of the river and the valley. Some believe there should be further limitations to the number of cars and parking lots in the valley, and more focus on public transportation. On busy summer days there can be long delays and traffic gridlock at the entrance to Yosemite.</p><br>
<p>The Bay of Pigs  is an inlet of the Gulf of Cazones located on the southern coast of Cuba. By 1910, it was included in Santa Clara Province, and then instead to Las Villas Province by 1961, but in 1976, it was reassigned to Matanzas Province, when the original six provinces of Cuba were re-organized into 14 new Provinces of Cuba.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>This bay is approximately 30 kilometers South of Jagüey Grande, 70 kilometers west of the city of Cienfuegos, and 150 kilometers southeast from the capital city Havana. On the western side of the bay, coral reefs border the main Zapata Swamp, part of the Zapata Peninsula. On the eastern side, beaches border margins of firm ground with mangroves and extensive areas of swampland to the north and east. At the north end of the bay, the village of Buena Ventura is adjacent to Playa Larga (Long Beach). 35 kilometers southeast of that, Playa Girón (Giron Beach) at the village of Girón, named after the notorious French pirate Gilberto Giron (c. 1604).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Playa Girón and Playa Larga were the landing sites for seaborne forces of armed Cuban exiles in the Bay of Pigs Invasion, an American CIA-sponsored attempt to overthrow the new government of Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro in April 1961.</p><br>
<p>According to Fidel Castro&#39;s former bodyguard, the late Juan Reinaldo Sánchez, Castro lived in great luxury and had a private island in the Bay of Pigs, replete with "mansions, guest houses, a heliport, dolphinarium, turtle lagoon, his luxury yacht Aquarama – a gift from Leonid Brezhnev – and deep-sea fishing speedboat".</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>In Cuban Spanish, cochinos may also mean the queen triggerfish (Balistes vetula), which inhabits coral reefs in Bahía de Cochinos, not swine (Sus scrofa).</p><br>
<p>The Illinois and Michigan Canal connected the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. In Illinois, it ran 96 mi from the Chicago River in Bridgeport, Chicago to the Illinois River at LaSalle-Peru. The canal crossed the Chicago Portage and helped establish Chicago as the transportation hub of the United States, before the railroad era. It was opened in 1848, its function was largely replaced by the wider and shorter Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal in 1900 and it ceased transportation operations with the completion of the Illinois Waterway in 1933.</p><br>
<p>Illinois and Michigan Canal Locks and Towpath, a collection of eight engineering structures and segments of the canal between Lockport and LaSalle-Peru, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964.</p><br>
<p>Portions of the canal have been filled in. Much of the former canal, near the Heritage Corridor transit line, has been preserved as part of the Illinois and Michigan Canal National Heritage Corridor.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>Canals were the highways of the day. The Illinois and Michigan Canal connected the Mississippi Basin to the Great Lakes Basin. The canal influenced Illinois&#39;s north border. The Erie Canal and the Illinois and Michigan Canal cemented cultural and trade ties to the Northeast rather than the South. Before the canal, farming in the region was limited to subsistence farming. The canal made agriculture in northern Illinois profitable, opening up connections to eastern markets. With the expansion of agriculture, the canal created the city of Chicago. Without the initial stimulus of the canal, Chicago would not have attracted the populations, railroads and the industry that it did.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Conception</h3><br>
<p>The first known Europeans to travel the area, Father Marquette and Louis Joliet went through the Chicago Portage on their return trip. Joliet remarked that with a canal they could remove the need to portage and the French could create an empire spanning the continent.</p><br>
<p>Years later, the territory was now American. With several slave states recently admitted to the Union, Nathaniel Pope and Ninian Edwards saw the opportunity to make Illinois a state. They proposed moving the border northward from the southern tip of Lake Michigan to allow the canal to be within a single state. They believed that the canal would firmly align Illinois with the free states and so Congress granted them statehood even though Illinois did not meet the population requirements.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>In 1824, Samuel D. Lockwood, one of the first commissioners of the canal, was given the authorization to hire contractors to survey a route for the canal to follow.</p><br>
<p>Construction on the canal began in 1836, although it was stopped for several years due to an Illinois state financial crisis related to the Panic of 1837. The Canal Commission had a grant of 284,000 acre of federal land which it sold at $1.25 per acre (309 $/km²) to finance the construction. Still, money had to be borrowed from eastern USA and British investors to finish the canal.</p><br>
<p>Most of the canal work was done by Irish immigrants who previously worked on the Erie Canal. The work was considered dangerous and many workers died, although no official records exist to indicate how many. The Irish immigrants who toiled to build the canal were often derided as a sub-class and were treated very poorly by other citizens of the city.</p><br>
<p>The canal was finished in 1848 at a total cost of $6,170,226. Chicago Mayor James Hutchinson Woodworth presided over the opening ceremony. Pumps were used to draw water to fill the canal near Chicago, which was soon supplemented by water from the Calumet Feeder Canal. The feeder was supplied by water from the Calumet River and originated in Blue Island, Il. The DuPage River provided water farther south. In 1871 the canal was deepened to speed up the current and to improve sewage disposal.</p><br>
<h3>Completion</h3><br>
<p>The canal was eventually 60 ft wide and 6 ft deep, with towpaths constructed along each edge to permit mules to be harnessed to tow barges along the canal. Towns were planned out along the path of the canal spaced at intervals corresponding to the length that the mules could haul the barges. It had seventeen locks and four aqueducts to cover the 140 ft height difference between Lake Michigan and the Illinois River. From 1848 to 1852 the canal was a popular passenger route, but passenger service ended in 1853 with the opening of the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad that ran parallel to the canal. The canal had its peak shipping year in 1882 and remained in use until 1933.</p><br>
<p>Experiencing a remarkable recovery from the devastating Great Chicago Fire of 1871, Chicago rebuilt rapidly along the shores of the Chicago River. The river was especially important to the development of the city since all wastes from houses, farms, the stockyards, and other industries could be dumped into the river and carried out into Lake Michigan.</p><br>
<h3>Decline and replacement</h3><br>
<p>The lake, however, was also the source of drinking water. During a tremendous storm in 1885, the rainfall washed refuse from the river, especially from the highly polluted Bubbly Creek, far out into the lake (the city water intakes are located 2 mi offshore). Although no epidemics occurred, the Chicago Sanitary District (now The Metropolitan Water Reclamation District) was created by the Illinois legislature in 1889 in response to this close call.</p><br>
<p>This new agency devised a plan to construct channels and canals to reverse the flow of the rivers away from Lake Michigan and divert the contaminated water downstream where it could be diluted as it flowed into the Des Plaines River and eventually the Mississippi.</p><br>
<p>In 1892, the direction of part of the Chicago River was reversed by the Army Corps of Engineers with the result that the river and much of Chicagos sewage flowed into the canal instead of into Lake Michigan. The complete reversal of the rivers flow was accomplished when the Sanitary and Ship Canal was opened in 1900.</p><br>
<p>It was replaced in 1933 by the Illinois Waterway, which remains in use.</p><br>
<h3>Rejuvenation</h3><br>
<p>The actual origin site of the Illinois and Michigan Canal has been converted into a nature park that integrates history, ecology and art to communicate the Canal&#39;s importance in the development of Chicago. In 2003 the Chicago Park District - in cooperation with the I & M Canal Association, hired Conservation Design Forum to develop plans to convert the brownfield site into a landscape that provided for passive recreational uses in a landscape setting with native plant species. Interpretive panels built into a wall along a bike trail were designed by local high school art students. also consulted on landscape stabilization techniques to repair a significantly degraded shoreline (water levels can fluctuate as much as 5 feet).</p><br>
<p>Today much of the canal is a long, thin linear park with canoeing and a 62.5 mi hiking and biking trail (constructed on the alignment of the mule tow paths). It also includes museums and historical canal buildings. It was designated the first National Heritage Corridor by US Congress in 1984.</p><br>
<h2>Adjacent communities</h2><br>
<p>Many towns in Northern Illinois owe their existence directly to the Illinois and Michigan Canal. Chicago, Lockport, Morris, Ottawa, and LaSalle were platted by the Canal Commissioners to raise funds for the canal&#39;s construction. From east to west the towns along the path of the canal include:</p><br>
<p>Bridgeport (Chicago neighborhood)</p><br>
<p>Summit</p><br>
<p>Willow Springs</p><br>
<p>Lemont</p><br>
<p>Romeoville</p><br>
<p>Lockport</p><br>
<p>Joliet</p><br>
<p>Channahon</p><br>
<p>Morris</p><br>
<p>Seneca</p><br>
<p>Marseilles</p><br>
<p>Ottawa</p><br>
<p>Utica</p><br>
<p>LaSalle</p><br>
<p>Peru</p><br>
<h2>Associated individuals</h2><br>
<p>Louis Joliet</p><br>
<p>Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard</p><br>
<p>Nathaniel Pope</p><br>
<p>Ninian Edwards</p><br>
<p>Abraham Lincoln</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Nevada  is a mountain range in the Western United States, between the Central Valley of California and the Basin and Range Province. The vast majority of the range lies in the state of California, although the Carson Range spur lies primarily in Nevada. The Sierra Nevada is part of the American Cordillera, a chain of mountain ranges that consists of an almost continuous sequence of such ranges that form the western "backbone" of North America, Central America, South America and Antarctica.</p><br>
<p>The Sierra runs 400 mi north-to-south, and is approximately 70 mi across east-to-west. Notable Sierra features include Lake Tahoe, the largest alpine lake in North America; Mount Whitney at 14,505 ft, the highest point in the contiguous United States; and Yosemite Valley, sculpted by glaciers from one-hundred-million-year-old granite. The Sierra is home to three national parks, twenty wilderness areas, and two national monuments. These areas include Yosemite, Sequoia, and Kings Canyon National Parks; and Devils Postpile National Monument.</p><br>
<p>The character of the range is shaped by its geology and ecology. More than one hundred million years ago during the Nevadan orogeny, granite formed deep underground. The range started to uplift four million years ago, and erosion by glaciers exposed the granite and formed the light-colored mountains and cliffs that make up the range. The uplift caused a wide range of elevations and climates in the Sierra Nevada, which are reflected by the presence of five life zones (areas with similar plant and animal communities). Uplift continues due to faulting caused by tectonic forces, creating spectacular fault block escarpments along the eastern edge of the southern Sierra.</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Nevada has a significant history. The California Gold Rush occurred in the western foothills from 1848 through 1855. Due to inaccessibility, the range was not fully explored until 1912.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Sierra Nevada lies in Central and Eastern California, with a very small but historically important spur extending into Nevada. West-to-east, the Sierra Nevada&#39;s elevation increases gradually from 1,000 ft in the Central Valley to an average height of about 10,500 ft at its crest only 50-75 mi to the east. The east slope forms the steep Sierra Escarpment. Unlike its surroundings, the range receives a substantial amount of snowfall and precipitation due to orographic lift.</p><br>
<h3>Setting</h3><br>
<p>The Sierra Nevadas irregular northern boundary stretches from the Susan River and Fredonyer Pass to the North Fork Feather River. It represents where the granitic bedrock of the Sierra Nevada dives below the southern extent of Cenozoic igneous surface rock from the Cascade Range. It is bounded on the west by Californias Central Valley and on the east by the Basin and Range Province.</p><br>
<p>The geographical boundary between the Sierra and the Cascades is virtually indistinguishable, with the Fredonyer Pass designation being traditional. Physiographically, the Sierra is a section of the Cascade-Sierra Mountains province, which in turn is part of the larger Pacific Mountain System physiographic division. The California Geological Survey states that "the northern Sierra boundary is marked where bedrock disappears under the Cenozoic volcanic cover of the Cascade Range."</p><br>
<h3>Watersheds</h3><br>
<p>The range is drained on its western slope by the Central Valley watershed, which discharges into the Pacific Ocean at San Francisco. The northern third of the western Sierra is part of the Sacramento River watershed (including the Feather, Yuba, and American River tributaries), and the middle third is drained by the San Joaquin River (including the Mokelumne, Stanislaus, Tuolumne, and Merced River tributaries). The southern third of the range is drained by the Kings, Kaweah, Tule, and Kern rivers, which flow into the endorheic basin of Tulare Lake, which rarely overflows into the San Joaquin during wet years.</p><br>
<p>The eastern slope watershed of the Sierra is much narrower; its rivers flow out into the endorheic Great Basin of eastern California and western Nevada. From north to south, the Susan River flows into intermittent Honey Lake, the Truckee River flows from Lake Tahoe into Pyramid Lake, the Carson River runs into Carson Sink, the Walker River into Walker Lake; Rush, Lee Vining and Mill Creeks flow into Mono Lake; and the Owens River into dry Owens Lake. Although none of the eastern rivers reach the sea, many of the streams from Mono Lake southwards are diverted into the Los Angeles Aqueduct which provides water to Southern California.</p><br>
<h3>Elevation</h3><br>
<p>The height of the mountains in the Sierra Nevada increases gradually from north to south. Between Fredonyer Pass and Lake Tahoe, the peaks range from 5,000 ft to more than 9,000 ft. The crest near Lake Tahoe is roughly 9,000 ft high, with several peaks approaching the height of Freel Peak (10,881 ft). Farther south, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park is Mount Lyell (13,120 ft). The Sierra rises to almost 14,000 ft with Mount Humphreys near Bishop, California. Finally, near Lone Pine, Mount Whitney is at 14,505 ft, the highest point in the contiguous United States.</p><br>
<p>South of Mount Whitney, the range quickly dwindles. The crest elevation is almost 10,000 ft near Lake Isabella, but south of the lake, the peaks reach to only a modest 8,000 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Notable features</h3><br>
<p>There are several notable geographical features in the Sierra Nevada:</p><br>
<p>Lake Tahoe is a large, clear freshwater lake in the northern Sierra Nevada, with an elevation of 6,225 ft and an area of 191 square miles. Lake Tahoe lies between the main Sierra and the Carson Range, a spur of the Sierra.</p><br>
<p>Hetch Hetchy Valley, Yosemite Valley, Kings Canyon, and Kern Canyon are examples of many glacially-scoured canyons on the west side of the Sierra.</p><br>
<p>Yosemite National Park is filled with notable features such as waterfalls and granite domes.</p><br>
<p>Groves of Giant Sequoias Sequoiadendron giganteum occur along a narrow band of altitude on the western side of the Sierra Nevada. Giant sequoias are the largest trees in the world.</p><br>
<p>Two of the largest rivers in California, which form the Central Valley and drain into San Francisco Bay, derive most of their flow from the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada range. The northern of the two is the Sacramento River (which also drains the adjacent Cascade Range and Klamath Range); the more southern is the San Joaquin River.</p><br>
<h3>Communities</h3><br>
<p>Communities in the Sierra Nevada range include Carson City, Paradise, South Lake Tahoe, Truckee, Grass Valley, Mammoth Lakes, Sonora, Nevada City, Portola, Auburn, Colfax and Kennedy Meadows.</p><br>
<h3>Protected areas</h3><br>
<p>Much of the Sierra Nevada consists of federal lands and is either protected from development or strictly managed. The three National Parks (Yosemite, Kings Canyon, Sequoia), two National Monuments (Devils Postpile, Giant Sequoia), and 26 wilderness areas lie within the Sierra. These areas protect 15.4% of the Sierra&#39;s 63,118 km&sup2; from logging and grazing.</p><br>
<p>The United States Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management currently control 52% of the land in the Sierra Nevada. Logging and grazing are generally allowed on land controlled by these agencies, under federal regulations that balance recreation and development on the land.</p><br>
<p>The California Bighorn Sheep Zoological Area near Mount Williamson in the southern Sierra was established to protect the endangered Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep. Starting in 1981, hikers were unable to enter the Area from May 15 through December 15, in order to protect the sheep. As of 2010, the restriction has been lifted and access to the Area is open for the whole year.</p><br>
<h2>Geologic history</h2><br>
<p>The earliest rocks in the Sierra Nevada are metamorphic roof pendants of Paleozoic age, the oldest being metasedimentary rocks from the Cambrian in the Mount Morrison region. These dark-colored hornfels, slates, marbles, and schists are found in the western foothills (notably around Coarsegold, west of the Tehachapi Pass) and east of the Sierra Crest. The earliest granite of the Sierra started to form in the Triassic period. This granite is mostly found east of the crest and north of 37.2°N. In the Triassic and into the Jurassic, an island arc collided with the west coast of North America and raised a chain of volcanoes, in an event called the Nevadan orogeny. Nearly all subaerial Sierran Arc volcanoes have since disappeared; their remains were redeposited during the Great Valley Sequence and the subsequent Cenozoic filling of the Great Valley, which is the source of much of the sedimentary rock in California.</p><br>
<p>In the Cretaceous, a subduction zone formed at the edge of the continent. This means that an oceanic plate started to dive beneath the North American plate. Magma formed through the subduction of the ancient Farallon Plate rose in plumes (plutons) deep underground, their combined mass forming what is called the Sierra Nevada batholith. These plutons formed at various times, from 115 Ma to 87 Ma. The earlier plutons formed in the western half of the Sierra, while the later plutons formed in the eastern half of the Sierra. By 66 Ma, the proto-Sierra Nevada had been worn down to a range of rolling low mountains, a few thousand feet high.</p><br>
<p>Twenty million years ago, crustal extension associated with the Basin and Range Province caused extensive volcanism in the Sierra. About 10 Ma, the Sierra Nevada started to form: a block of crust between the Coast Range and the Basin and Range Province started to tilt to the west. Rivers started cutting deep canyons on both sides of the range. Lava filled some of these canyons, which have subsequently eroded leaving table mountains that follow the old river channels.</p><br>
<p>About 2.5 Ma, the Earth&#39;s climate cooled, and ice ages started. Glaciers carved out characteristic U-shaped canyons throughout the Sierra. The combination of river and glacier erosion exposed the uppermost portions of the plutons emplaced millions of years before, leaving only a remnant of metamorphic rock on top of some Sierra peaks.</p><br>
<p>Uplift of the Sierra Nevada continues today, especially along its eastern side. This uplift causes large earthquakes, such as the Lone Pine earthquake of 1872.</p><br>
<h2>Climate and meteorology</h2><br>
<p>The climate of the Sierra Nevada is influenced by the Mediterranean climate of California. During the fall, winter and spring, precipitation in the Sierra ranges from 20 to 80 in where it occurs mostly as snow above 6,000 ft. Precipitation is highest on the central and northern portions of the western slope between 5,000 and elevation, due to orographic lift. Above 8,000 ft, precipitation diminishes on the western slope up to the crest, since most of the precipitation has been wrung out at lower elevations. Most parts of the range east of the crest are in a rain shadow, and receive less than 25 inches of precipitation per year. While most summer days are dry, afternoon thunderstorms sometimes occur, particularly during the North American Monsoon in mid and late summer. Some of these summer thunderstorms drop over an inch of rain in a short period, and the lightning can start fires. Summer high temperatures average 42 -. Winters are comparatively mild, and the temperature is usually only just low enough to sustain a heavy snowpack. For example, Tuolumne Meadows, at 8,600 ft elevation, has winter daily highs about 40 &deg;F with daily lows about 10 &deg;F. The growing season lasts 20 to 230 days, strongly dependent on elevation. The highest elevations of the Sierra have an alpine climate.</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Nevada snowpack is the major source of water and a significant source of electric power generation in California. Many reservoirs were constructed in the canyons of the Sierra throughout the 20th century, Several major aqueducts serving both agriculture and urban areas distribute Sierra water throughout the state. However, the Sierra casts a rain shadow, which greatly affects the climate and ecology of the central Great Basin. This rain shadow is largely responsible for Nevada&#39;s being the driest state in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Precipitation varies substantially from year to year. It is not uncommon for some years to receive precipitation totals far above or below normal.</p><br>
<p>The height of the range and the steepness of the Sierra Escarpment, particularly at the southern end of the range, produces a wind phenomenon known as the "Sierra Rotor". This is a horizontal rotation of the atmosphere just east of the crest of the Sierra, set in motion as an effect of strong westerly winds.</p><br>
<p>Because of the large number of airplanes that have crashed in the Sierra Nevada, primarily due to the complex weather and atmospheric conditions such as downdrafts and microbursts caused by geography there, a portion of the area, a triangle whose vertices are Reno, Nevada; Fresno, California; and Las Vegas, Nevada, has been dubbed the "Nevada Triangle", in reference to the Bermuda Triangle. Some counts put the number of crashes in the triangle at 2,000, including millionaire and record-breaking flyer Steve Fossett. Theories that the crashes are related in some way to the United States Air Force&#39;s Area 51, or to the activities of extra-terrestrial aliens, have no evidence to support them.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The Sierra Nevada is divided into a number of biotic zones, each of which is defined by its climate and supports a number of interdependent species. Life in the higher elevation zones adapted to colder weather, and to most of the precipitation falling as snow. The rain shadow of the Sierra causes the eastern slope to be warmer and drier: each life zone is higher in the east. A list of biotic zones, and corresponding elevations, is presented below:</p><br>
<p>The western foothill zone, 1,000 -, North of Sequoia National Park, Gray pine (also known as digger pine) is intermixed with the oak woodland.</p><br>
<p>The Pinyon pine-Juniper woodland, 5,000 - east side only.</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Nevada lower montane forest (indicator species: Ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine), 2,500 – west side, 7,000 - east side. This biotic zone is notable for containing Giant Sequoia.</p><br>
<p>The upper montane forest (indicator species: Lodgepole pine, Red fir) 7,000 – west side, 9,000 – east side.</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Nevada subalpine zone (indicator species: Whitebark pine) 9,000 – west side, 10,500 – east side</p><br>
<p>The alpine region at greater than 10,500 ft, and greater than 11,500 ft east side.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Native Americans</h3><br>
<p>Archaeological excavations placed Martis people of Paleo-Indians in northcentral Sierra Nevada during the period of 3,000 BCE to 500 CE. The earliest identified sustaining indigenous people in the Sierra Nevada were the Northern Paiute tribes on the east side, with the Mono tribe and Sierra Miwok tribe on the western side, and the Kawaiisu and Tubatulabal tribes in the southern Sierra. Today, some historic intertribal trade route trails over mountain passes are known artifact locations, such as Duck Pass with its obsidian arrowheads. The California and Sierra Native American tribes were predominantly peaceful, with occasional territorial disputes between the Paiute and Sierra Miwok tribes in the mountains. Washo and Maidu were also in this area prior to the era of European exploration and displacement.</p><br>
<h3>Etymology</h3><br>
<p>Used in 1542 by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo to describe a Pacific Coast Range (Santa Cruz Mountains), the term "sierra nevada" was a general identification of less familiar ranges toward the interior. In 1776, Pedro Font&#39;s map applied the name to the range currently known as the Sierra Nevada.</p><br>
<p>The literal translation is "snowy mountains," from sierra "a range of hills," 1610s, from Spanish sierra "jagged mountain range," lit. "saw," from Latin serra "a saw&quot</p><br>
<p>and from fem. of Spanish nevado "snowy."</p><br>
<h3>Initial European-American exploration</h3><br>
<p>European-American exploration of the mountain range started in 1827. Although prior to the 1820s there were Spanish missions, pueblos (towns), presidios (forts), and ranchos along the coast of California, no Spanish explorers visited the Sierra Nevada. The first European Americans to visit the mountains were amongst a group led by fur trapper Jedediah Smith, crossing north of the Yosemite area in May 1827, at Ebbetts Pass.</p><br>
<p>In 1833, a subgroup of the Bonneville Expedition led by Joseph Reddeford Walker was sent westward to find an overland route to California. Eventually the party discovered a route along the Humboldt River across present-day Nevada, ascending the Sierra Nevada, starting near present-day Bridgeport and descending between the Tuolumne and Merced River drainage. The group may have been the first non-indigenous people to see Yosemite Valley. The Walker party probably visited either the Tuolumne or Merced Groves of Giant Sequoia, becoming the first non-indigenous people to see the giant trees,</p><br>
<p>In the winter of 1844, Lt. John C. Frémont, accompanied by Kit Carson, was the first European to see Lake Tahoe. The Frémont party camped at 8,050 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Gold rush</h3><br>
<p>The California Gold Rush began at Sutter&#39;s Mill, near Coloma, in the western foothills of the Sierra. On January 24, 1848, James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River. Rumors soon started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan. Brannan strode through the streets of San Francisco, holding aloft a vial of gold, shouting "Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River!"</p><br>
<p>On August 19, 1848, the New York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold. On December 5, 1848, President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress. Soon, waves of immigrants from around the world, later called the "forty-niners", invaded the Gold Country of California or "Mother Lode". Miners lived in tents, wood shanties, or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships. Wherever gold was discovered, hundreds of miners would collaborate to put up a camp and stake their claims.</p><br>
<p>Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simply panned for gold in California&#39;s rivers and streams. However, panning cannot take place on a large scale, and miners and groups of miners graduated to more complex placer mining. Groups of prospectors would divert the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom.</p><br>
<p>By 1853, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations. Hydraulic mining was used on ancient gold-bearing gravel beds on hillsides and bluffs in the gold fields. In hydraulic mining, a high-pressure hose directed a powerful stream or jet of water at gold-bearing gravel beds. It is estimated that by the mid-1880s, 11 million ounces (340 t) of gold (worth approximately US$15 billion at December 2010 prices) had been recovered by "hydraulicking". A byproduct of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel, silt, heavy metals, and other pollutants went into streams and rivers., many areas still bear the scars of hydraulic mining, since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life.</p><br>
<p>It is estimated that by 1855, at least 300,000 gold-seekers, merchants, and other immigrants had arrived in California from around the world.</p><br>
<h3>Thorough exploration</h3><br>
<p>The Gold Rush populated the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada, but even by 1860, most of the Sierra was unexplored. The state legislature authorized the California Geological Survey to officially explore the Sierra (and survey the rest of the state). Josiah Whitney was appointed to head the survey. Men of the survey, including William H. Brewer, Charles F. Hoffmann and Clarence King, explored the backcountry of what would become Yosemite National Park in 1863. In 1864, they explored the area around Kings Canyon. In 1869, John Muir started his wanderings in the Sierra Nevada range, and in 1871, King was the first to climb Mount Langley also that year, fishermen were the first to climb Mount Whitney. From 1892–7 Theodore Solomons made the first attempt to map a route along the crest of the Sierra.</p><br>
<p>Other people finished exploring and mapping the Sierra. Bolton Coit Brown explored the Kings River watershed in 1895–1899. Joseph N. LeConte mapped the area around Yosemite National Park and what would become Kings Canyon National Park. James S. Hutchinson, a noted mountaineer, climbed the Palisades (1904) and Mount Humphreys (1905). By 1912, the USGS published a set of maps of the Sierra Nevada, and the era of exploration was over.</p><br>
<h3>Conservation</h3><br>
<p>The tourism potential of the Sierra Nevada was recognized early in the European history of the range.</p><br>
<p>Yosemite Valley was first protected by the federal government in 1864. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were ceded to California in 1866 and turned into a state park. John Muir perceived overgrazing by sheep and logging of Giant Sequoia to be a problem in the Sierra. Muir successfully lobbied for the protection of the rest of Yosemite National Park: Congress created an Act to protect the park in 1890. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were added to the Park in 1906. In the same year, Sequoia National Park was formed to protect the Giant Sequoia: all logging of the Sequoia ceased at that time.</p><br>
<p>In 1903, the city of San Francisco proposed building a hydroelectric dam to flood Hetch Hetchy Valley. The city and the Sierra Club argued over the dam for 10 years, until the USA Congress passed the Raker Act in 1913 and allowed dam building to proceed. O&#39;Shaughnessy Dam was completed in 1923.</p><br>
<p>Between 1912 and 1918, Congress debated three times to protect Lake Tahoe in a national park. None of these efforts succeeded, and after World War II, towns such as South Lake Tahoe grew around the shores of the lake. By 1980, the permanent population of the Lake Tahoe area grew to 50,000, while the summer population grew to 90,000. The development around Lake Tahoe affected the clarity of the lake water. In order to preserve the lake&#39;s clarity, construction in the Tahoe basin is currently regulated by the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency.</p><br>
<p>As the 20th century progressed, more of the Sierra became available for recreation; other forms of economic activity decreased. The John Muir Trail, a trail that followed the Sierra crest from Yosemite Valley to Mount Whitney, was funded in 1915 and finished in 1938. Kings Canyon National Park was formed in 1940 to protect the deep canyon of the Kings River.</p><br>
<p>By 1964, the Wilderness Act protected portions of the Sierra as primitive areas where humans are simply temporary visitors. Gradually, 20 wilderness areas were established to protect scenic backcountry of the Sierra. These wilderness areas include the John Muir Wilderness (protecting the eastern slope of the Sierra and the area between Yosemite and Kings Canyon Parks), and wilderness within each of the National Parks. Because of the Wilderness Act and the rocky terrain in the area, plans to construct two trans-Sierra highways across this portion of the Sierra Escarpment, State Route 168 and State Route 190, were abandoned; the two highways each remain split as discontiguous segments on either side of the Sierra.</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Nevada still faces a number of issues that threaten its conservation. Logging occurs on both private and public lands, including controversial clearcut methods and thinning logging on private and public lands. Grazing occurs on private lands as well as on National Forest lands, which include Wilderness areas. Overgrazing can alter hydrologic processes and vegetation composition, remove vegetation that serves as food and habitat for native species, and contribute to sedimentation and pollution in waterways. A recent increase in large wildfires like the Rim Fire in Yosemite National Park and the Stanislaus National Forest and the King Fire on the Eldorado National Forest, has prompted concerns. A 2015 study indicated that the increase in fire risk in California may be attributable to human-induced climate change. A study looking back over 8,000 years found that warmer climate periods experienced severe droughts and more stand-replacing fires and concluded that as climate is such a powerful influence on wildfires, trying to recreate presettlement forest structure is likely impossible in a warmer future.</p><br>
<p>Smyrna  was a Greek city dating back to antiquity located at a central and strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. This place was renamed to İzmir, Turkey. Due to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to prominence. Two sites of the ancient city are today within the boundaries of İzmir. The first site, probably founded by indigenous peoples, rose to prominence during the Archaic Period as one of the principal ancient Greek settlements in western Anatolia. The second, whose foundation is associated with Alexander the Great, reached metropolitan proportions during the period of the Roman Empire. Most of the present-day remains of the ancient city date from the Roman era, the majority from after a 2nd-century AD earthquake.</p><br>
<p>In practical terms, a distinction is often made between these. Old Smyrna was the initial settlement founded around the 11th century BC, first as an Aeolian settlement, and later taken over and developed during the Archaic Period by the Ionians. Smyrna proper was the new city which residents moved to as of the 4th century BC and whose foundation was inspired by Alexander the Great.</p><br>
<p>Old Smyrna was located on a small peninsula connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus at the northeastern corner of the inner Gulf of İzmir, at the edge of a fertile plain and at the foot of Mount Yamanlar. This Anatolian settlement commanded the gulf. Today, the archeological site, named Bayraklı Höyüğü, is approximately 700 m inland, in the Tepekule neighbourhood of Bayraklı at 38&deg;27&prime;51&Prime;N latitude, 27&deg;10&prime;13&Prime;E longitude.</p><br>
<p>New Smyrna developed simultaneously on the slopes of the Mount Pagos (Kadifekale today) and alongside the coastal strait, immediately below where a small bay existed until the 18th century.</p><br>
<p>The core of the late Hellenistic and early Roman Smyrna is preserved in the large area of İzmir Agora Open Air Museum at this site. Research is being pursued at the sites of both the old and the new cities. This has been conducted since 1997 for Old Smyrna and since 2002 for the Classical Period city, in collaboration between the İzmir Archaeology Museum and the Metropolitan Municipality of İzmir.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Etymology</h3><br>
<p>Several explanations have been offered for its name. A Greek myth derived the name from an eponymous Amazon named "Σμύρνα" (Smyrna), which was also the name of a quarter of Ephesus. This is the basis of Myrina, a city of Aeolis.</p><br>
<p>In inscriptions and coins, the name often was written as "Ζμύρνα" (Zmyrna), "Ζμυρναῖος" (Zmyrneos), "of Smyrna".</p><br>
<p>The name Smyrna may also have been taken from the ancient Greek word for myrrh, "smyrna", which was the chief export of the city in ancient times.</p><br>
<h3>Third millennium to 687 BC</h3><br>
<p>The region was settled at least as of the beginning of the third millennium BC, or perhaps earlier, as the recent finds in Yeşilova Höyük suggests. It could have been a city of the autochthonous Leleges before the Greek colonists started to settle along the coast of Asia Minor as of the beginning of the first millennium BC. Throughout antiquity Smyrna was a leading city-state of Ionia, with influence over the Aegean shores and islands. Smyrna was also among the cities that claimed Homer as a resident.</p><br>
<p>The early Aeolian Greek settlers of Lesbos and Cyme, expanding eastwards, occupied the valley of Smyrna. It was one of the confederacy of Aeolian city-states, marking the Aeolian frontier with the Ionian colonies.</p><br>
<p>Strangers or refugees from the Ionian city of Colophon settled in the city. During an uprising in 688 BC, they took control of the city, making it the thirteenth of the Ionian city-states. Revised mythologies said it was a colony of Ephesus. In 688 BC, the Ionian boxer Onomastus of Smyrna won the prize at Olympia, but the coup was probably then a recent event. The Colophonian conquest is mentioned by Mimnermus (before 600 BC), who counts himself equally of Colophon and of Smyrna. The Aeolic form of the name was retained even in the Attic dialect, and the epithet "Aeolian Smyrna" remained current long after the conquest.</p><br>
<p>Smyrna was located at the mouth of the small river Hermus and at the head of a deep arm of the sea (Smyrnaeus Sinus) that reached far inland. This enabled Greek trading ships to sail into the heart of Lydia, making the city part of an essential trade route between Anatolia and the Aegean. During the 7th century BC, Smyrna rose to power and splendor. One of the great trade routes which cross Anatolia descends the Hermus valley past Sardis, and then, diverging from the valley, passes south of Mount Sipylus and crosses a low pass into the little valley where Smyrna lies between the mountains and the sea. Miletus and later Ephesus were situated at the sea end of the other great trade route across Anatolia; they competed for a time successfully with Smyrna; but after both cities&#39; harbors silted up, Smyrna was without a rival.</p><br>
<p>The Meles River, which flowed by Smyrna, is famous in literature and was worshiped in the valley. A common and consistent tradition connects Homer with the valley of Smyrna and the banks of the Meles; his figure was one of the stock types on coins of Smyrna, one class of which numismatists call "Homerian." The epithet Melesigenes was applied to him; the cave where he was wont to compose his poems was shown near the source of the river; his temple, the Homereum, stood on its banks. The steady equable flow of the Meles, alike in summer and winter, and its short course, beginning and ending near the city, are celebrated by Aristides and Himerius. The stream rises from abundant springs east of the city and flows into the southeast extremity of the gulf.</p><br>
<p>The archaic city ("Old Smyrna") contained a temple of Athena from the 7th century BC.</p><br>
<h3>Lydian period</h3><br>
<p>When the Mermnad kings raised the Lydian power and aggressiveness, Smyrna was one of the first points of attack. Gyges (ca. 687—652 BC) was, however, defeated on the banks of the Hermus, the situation of the battlefield showing that the power of Smyrna extended far to the east. A strong fortress was built probably by the Smyrnaean Ionians to command the valley of Nymphi, the ruins of which are still imposing, on a hill in the pass between Smyrna and Nymphi.</p><br>
<p>According to Theognis (c. 500 BC), it was pride that destroyed Smyrna. Mimnermus laments the degeneracy of the citizens of his day, who could no longer stem the Lydian advance. Finally, Alyattes II (609—560 BC) conquered the city and sacked it, and though Smyrna did not cease to exist, the Greek life and political unity were destroyed, and the polis was reorganized on the village system. Smyrna is mentioned in a fragment of Pindar and in an inscription of 388 BC, but its greatness was past.</p><br>
<h3>Hellenistic period</h3><br>
<p>Alexander the Great conceived the idea of restoring the Greek city in a scheme that was, according to Strabo, actually carried out under Antigonus (316—301 BC) and Lysimachus (301 BC—281 BC), who enlarged and fortified the city. The ruined acropolis of the ancient city, the "crown of Smyrna", had been on a steep peak about 1,250 ft high, which overhangs the northeast extremity of the gulf. Modern İzmir was constructed atop the later Hellenistic city, partly on the slopes of a rounded hill the Greeks called Pagos near the southeast end of the gulf, and partly on the low ground between the hill and the sea. The beauty of the Hellenistic city, clustering on the low ground and rising tier over tier on the hillside, was frequently praised by the ancients and is celebrated on its coins.</p><br>
<p>Smyrna is shut in on the west by a hill now called Deirmen Tepe, with the ruins of a temple on the summit. The walls of Lysimachus crossed the summit of this hill, and the acropolis occupied the top of Pagus. Between the two the road from Ephesus entered the city by the Ephesian gate, near which was a gymnasium. Closer to the acropolis the outline of the stadium is still visible, and the theatre was situated on the north slopes of Pagus. Smyrna possessed two harbours. The outer harbour was simply the open roadstead of the gulf, and the inner was a small basin with a narrow entrance partially filled up by Tamerlane in 1402 AD.</p><br>
<p>The streets were broad, well paved and laid out at right angles; many were named after temples: the main street, called the Golden, ran across the city from west to east, beginning probably from the temple of Zeus Akraios on the west slope of Pagus, and running round the lower slopes of Pagus (like a necklace on the statue, to use the favorite terms of Aristides the orator) towards Tepecik outside the city on the east, where probably stood the temple of Cybele, worshipped under the name of Meter Sipylene, the patroness of the city. The name is from the nearby Mount Sipylus, which bounds the valley of the city&#39;s backlands. The plain towards the sea was too low to be properly drained, and in rainy weather, the streets of the lower town were deep with mud and water.</p><br>
<p>At the end of the Hellenistic period, in 197 BC, the city suddenly cut its ties with King Eumenes of Pergamum and instead appealed to Rome for help. Because Rome and Smyrna had no ties until then, Smyrna created a cult of Rome to establish a bond, and the cult eventually became widespread through the whole Roman Empire. As of 195 BC, the city of Rome started to be deified, in the cult to the goddess Roma. In this sense, the Smyrneans can be considered as the creators of the goddess Roma.</p><br>
<p>In 133 BC, when the last Attalid king Attalus III died without an heir, his will conferred his entire kingdom, including Smyrna, to the Romans. They organized it into the Roman province of Asia, making Pergamum the capital. Smyrna, however, as a major seaport, became a leading city in the newly constituted province.</p><br>
<h3>Roman and Byzantine period</h3><br>
<p>As one of the principal cities of Roman Asia, Smyrna vied with Ephesus and Pergamum for the title "First City of Asia."</p><br>
<p>A Christian church and a bishopric existed here from a very early time, probably originating in the considerable Jewish colony. It was one of the seven churches addressed in the Book of Revelation. Saint Ignatius of Antioch visited Smyrna and later wrote letters to its bishop, Polycarp. A mob of Jews and pagans abetted the martyrdom of Polycarp in AD 153. Saint Irenaeus, who heard Polycarp as a boy, was probably a native of Smyrna. Another famous resident of the same period was Aelius Aristides.</p><br>
<p>Polycrates reports a succession of bishops including Polycarp of Smyrna, as well as others in nearby cities such as Melito of Sardis. Related to that time the German historian W. Bauer wrote:</p><br>
<p>Asian Jewish Christianity received in turn the knowledge that henceforth the "church" would be open without hesitation to the Jewish influence mediated by Christians, coming not only from the apocalyptic traditions, but also from the synagogue with its practices concerning worship, which led to the appropriation of the Jewish passover observance. Even the observance of the sabbath by Christians appears to have found some favor in Asia...we find that in post-apostolic times, in the period of the formation of ecclesiastical structure, the Jewish Christians in these regions come into prominence.</p><br>
<p>In the late 2nd century, Irenaeus also noted:</p><br>
<p>Polycarp also was not only instructed by apostles, and conversed with many who had seen Christ, but was also, by apostles in Asia, appointed bishop of the Church in Smyrna…always taught the things which he had learned from the apostles, and which the Church has handed down, and which alone are true. To these things all the Asiatic Churches testify, as do also those men who have succeeded Polycarp.</p><br>
<p>Tertullian wrote c. 208 AD:</p><br>
<p>Anyhow the heresies are at best novelties, and have no continuity with the teaching of Christ. Perhaps some heretics may claim Apostolic antiquity: we reply: Let them publish the origins of their churches and unroll the catalogue of their bishops till now from the Apostles or from some bishop appointed by the Apostles, as the Smyrnaeans count from Polycarp and John, and the Romans from Clement and Peter; let heretics invent something to match this.</p><br>
<p>Hence, apparently the church in Smyrna was one of the churches that Tertullian felt had real apostolic succession.</p><br>
<p>During the mid-3rd century, most became affiliated with the Greco-Roman churches.</p><br>
<p>When Constantinople became the seat of government, the trade between Anatolia and the West diminished in importance, and Smyrna declined. The Seljuk commander Tzachas seized Smyrna in 1084 and used it as a base for naval raids, but the city was recovered by the general John Doukas. The city was several times ravaged by the Turks, and had become quite ruinous when the Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes rebuilt it about 1222.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>Ibn Batuta found it still in great part a ruin when the homonymous chieftain of the Beylik of Aydın had conquered it about 1330 and made his son Umur governor. It became the port of the emirate. Soon afterwards the Knights of Saint John established themselves in the town but failed to conquer the citadel. In 1402, Tamerlane stormed the town and massacred almost all the inhabitants. The Mongol conquest was only temporary, but Smyrna was recovered by the Turks under the Aydın dynasty after which it became Ottoman, when the Ottomans took over the lands of Aydın.</p><br>
<p>Greek influence was so strong in the area that the Turks called it "Smyrna of the infidels" (Gavur İzmir). While Turkish sources track the emergence of the term to the 14th century when two separate parts of the city were controlled by two different powers, the upper İzmir being Muslim and the lower part of the city Christian.</p><br>
<p>During the late 19th and early 20th century, the city was an important financial and cultural center of the Greek world. Out of the 391 factories 322 belonged to local Greeks, while 3 out of the 9 banks were backed by Greek capital. Education was also dominated by the local Greek communities with 67 male and 4 female schools in total. The Ottomans continued to control the area, with the exception of the 1919–1922 period, when the city was assigned to Greece by the Treaty of Sèvres.</p><br>
<p>The most important Greek educational institution of the region was the Evangelical School that operated from 1733 to 1922.</p><br>
<h3>Post World War I</h3><br>
<p>After the end of the First World War Greece occupied Smyrna from 15 May 1919 and put in place a military administration. The Greek premier Venizelos had plans to annex Smyrna and he seemed to be realizing his objective in the Treaty of Sèvres, signed 10 August 1920. (However, this treaty was not ratified by the parties; the Treaty of Peace of Lausanne replaced it.)</p><br>
<p>The occupation of Smyrna came to an end when the Turkish army of Kemal Atatürk entered the city on September 9, 1922, at the end of the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922). In the immediate aftermath, an intentional fire was set to the Greek and Armenian quarters of the city on September 13, 1922 known as the Great Fire of Smyrna. The death toll is estimated to range from 10,000 to 100,000.</p><br>
<h2>Agora</h2><br>
<p>The remains of the ancient agora of Smyrna constitute today the space of İzmir Agora Museum in İzmirs Namazgah quarter, although its area is commonly referred to as "Agora" by the citys inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>Situated on the northern slopes of the Pagos hills, it was the commercial, judicial and political nucleus of the ancient city, its center for artistic activities and for teaching.</p><br>
<p>İzmir Agora Open Air Museum consists of five parts, including the agora area, the base of the northern basilica gate, the stoa and the ancient shopping centre.</p><br>
<p>The agora of Smyrna was built during the Hellenistic era. After a destructive earthquake in 178 AD, Smyrna was rebuilt in the Roman period (2nd century AD) under the emperor Marcus Aurelius, according to an urban plan drawn by Hippodamus of Miletus. The bust of the emperor&#39;s wife Faustina on the second arch of the western stoa confirms this fact.</p><br>
<p>It was constructed on a sloping terrain in three floors, close to the city center. The terrain is 165 m wide and 200 m long. It is bordered on all sides by porticos. Because a Byzantine and later an Ottoman cemetery were located over the ruins of the agora, it was preserved from modern constructions. This agora is now the largest and the best preserved among Ionian agoras. The agora is now surrounded by modern buildings that still cover its eastern and southern parts.</p><br>
<p>The agora was used until the Byzantine period.</p><br>
<p>On entering the courtyard, to the left is the western stoa, in the back the basilica and on the right side the Ottoman cemetery. The courtyard was surrounded by porticoes on three sides. The basilica and the western portico were built over an infrastructure of basements with round arches to protect them against future earthquakes. The eastern end and the southern porticoes consisted of a two-floor compounded structure. Beneath the basilica was a covered market place. The design of the basement has a strong resemblance with the crypto-porticus constructions of the western provinces.</p><br>
<p>The monumental entrance at the eastern side was one of the most magnificent and arched structures of the Hellenistic era.</p><br>
<p>A two-storied stoa, 17.5 m wide, was constructed at the eastern and western side of the agora. Each stoa was divided in three galleries by two rows of columns. Each stoa had an upper story. The stoas were protected from sun and rain by a roof. These impressive structures measured 75 m by 18 m. The southern part of the western stoa has many water channels and large water reservoirs, pointing to the presence of water in the agora.</p><br>
<h2>Excavations</h2><br>
<p>Although Smyrna was explored by Charles Texier in the 19th century and the German consul in İzmir had purchased the land around the ancient theater in 1917 to start excavations, the first scientific digs can be said to have started in 1927. Most of the discoveries were made by archaeological exploration carried as an extension during the period between 1931 and 1942 by the German archaeologist Rudolf Naumann and Selâhattin Kantar, the director of İzmir and Ephesus museums. They uncovered a three-floor, rectangular compound with stairs in the front, built on columns and arches around a large courtyard in the middle of the building.</p><br>
<p>New excavations in the agora began in 1996. They have continued since 2002 under the sponsorship of the Metropolitan Municipality of İzmir. A primary school adjacent to the agora that had burned in 1980 was not reconstructed. Instead, its space was incorporated into the historical site. The area of the agora was increased to 16,590 m&sup2;. This permitted the evacuation of a previously unexplored zone. The archaeologists and the local authorities, means permitting, are also keenly eyeing a neighbouring multi-storey car park, which is known to cover an important part of the ancient settlement. During the present renovations the old restorations in concrete are gradually being replaced by marble.</p><br>
<p>The new excavation has uncovered the agora&#39;s northern gate. It has been concluded that embossed figures of the goddess Hestia found in these digs were a continuation of the Zeus altar uncovered during the first digs. Statues of the gods Hermes, Dionysos, Eros and Heracles have also been found, as well as many statues, heads, embossments, figurines and monuments of people and animals, made of marble, stone, bone, glass, metal and terracotta. Inscriptions found here list the people who provided aid to Smyrna after the earthquake of 178 AD.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>In the early 20th-century, there were mills spinning thread. As of 1920, there were two factories in Smyrna dyeing yarn, which were owned by British companies. These companies employed over 60,000 people. During this time, there was also a French owned cotton spinning mill. The city also produced soap made of refuse olive oil. An ironworks, also owned by the British, produced tools and equipment. Those tools were used to extract tannin from valonia oak. As of 1920, the ironwork was exporting 5,000 tons of product a year. The city also produced wooden boxes, which were used for fig and raisin storage. The wood for the boxes was imported from Austria and Romania.</p><br>
<h2>Toponyms</h2><br>
<p>Several American cities have been named after Smyrna, including Smyrna, Georgia; Smyrna, Tennessee; Smyrna, Delaware; Smyrna, Michigan; and New Smyrna Beach, Florida.</p><br>
<p>The Andaman Sea is a body of water to the southeast of the Bay of Bengal, south of Myanmar , west of Thailand, north-west of Malay Peninsula, north of Sumatra and east of the Andaman Islands, India, from which it takes its name; it is part of the Indian Ocean.</p><br>
<p>The sea has been traditionally used for fishery and transportation of goods between the coastal countries and its coral reefs and islands are popular tourist destinations. The fishery and tourist infrastructure was severely damaged by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.</p><br>
<h2>Extent</h2><br>
<p>Andaman Sea, which extends over 92E to 100E and 4N to 20N, occupies a very significant position in Indian Ocean, yet remained unexplored for long period of time. Located to the south of Myanmar, west of Thailand and north of Indonesia, this sea is separated from Bay of Bengal by the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI) and an associated chain of sea mounts along the Indo-Burmese plate boundary. The Strait of Malacca (between Malay Peninsula and Sumatra) forms the southern exit way of the basin, which is 3 km wide and 37m deep.</p><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the "Andaman or Burma Sea" as follows:</p><br>
<p>On the Southwest. A line running from Oedjong Raja ({{coord|5|32|N|95|12|E|display=inline}}) in Sumatra to Poeloe Bras (Breuëh) and on through the Western Islands of the Nicobar Group to Sandy Point in Little Andaman Island, in such a way that all the narrow waters appertain to the Burma Sea.</p><br>
<p>On the Northwest. The Eastern limit of the Bay of Bengal A line running from Cape Negrais (16°03&#39;N) in Burma Myanmar through the larger islands of the Andaman group, in such a way that all the narrow waters between the islands lie to the Eastward of the line and are excluded from the Bay of Bengal, as far as a point in Little Andaman Island in latitude 10°48&#39;N, longitude 92°24&#39;E.</p><br>
<p>On the Southeast. A line joining Lem Voalan (7°47&#39;N) in Siam Thailand, and Pedropunt (5°40&#39;N) in Sumatra.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The northern and eastern side of the basin is shallow, as the continental shelf off the coast of Myanmar and Thailand extends over 200 km (marked by 300m isobath). About 45% of the basin area is shallower (less than 500m depth), which is the direct consequence of the presence of the wider shelf. The continental slope which follows the eastern shelf is quite steep between 9N and 14N. Here, the perspective view of the submarine topography sectioned along 95E exposes the abrupt rise in depth of sea by about 3000m within a short horizontal distance of a degree. Isobaths corresponding to 900m and 2000m are also shown in the figure to emphasize the steepness of the slope. Further, it may be noted that the deep ocean is also not free from sea mounts; hence only around 15% of the total area is deeper than 2500m.</p><br>
<p>The northern and eastern parts are shallower than 180 m due to the silt deposited by the Irrawaddy River. This major river flows into the sea from the north through Myanmar. The western and central areas are 900 – deep. Less than 5% of the sea is deeper than 3,000 m, and in a system of submarine valleys east of the Andaman-Nicobar Ridge, the depth exceeds 4,000 m. The sea floor is covered with pebbles, gravel and sand.</p><br>
<p>The western boundary of Andaman sea is marked by volcanic islands and sea mounts, with straits or passages of variable depths that control the entry and exit of water to Bay of Bengal. There occurs a drastic change in depth of water over a small distance of 200 km, as one moves from Bay of Bengal (around 3500m deep) to the vicinity of islands (up to 1000m depth) and further into Andaman Sea. The exchange of water between Andaman sea and Bay of Bengal occurs through the straits formed between Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Out of these, the most important straits (in terms of width and depth) are: Preparis Channel (PC), Ten Degree Channel (TDC) and Great Channel (GC), across which major transport shall take place. PC is the widest but shallowest (250m) of the three and separates South Myanmar from North Andaman. TDC is 600m deep and lies between Little Andaman and Car Nicobar. GC is 1500m deep and separates Great Nicobar from Banda Aceh.</p><br>
<h3>Ocean floor tectonics</h3><br>
<p>Running in a rough north–south line on the seabed of the Andaman Sea is the boundary between two tectonic plates, the Burma Plate and the Sunda Plate. These plates (or microplates) are believed to have formerly been part of the larger Eurasian Plate, but were formed when transform fault activity intensified as the Indian Plate began its substantive collision with the Eurasian continent. As a result, a back-arc basin center was created, which began to form the marginal basin which would become the Andaman Sea, the current stages of which commenced approximately 3–4 million years ago (Ma).</p><br>
<p>The boundary between two major tectonic plates results in high seismic activity in the region (see List of earthquakes in Indonesia). Numerous earthquakes have been recorded, and at least six, in 1797, 1833, 1861, 2004, 2005 and 2007, had the magnitude of 8.4 or higher. On December 26, 2004, a large portion of the boundary between the Burma Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate slipped, causing the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. This megathrust earthquake had a magnitude of 9.3. Between 1300 and 1600 kilometers of the boundary underwent thrust faulting and shifted by about 20 meters, with the sea floor being uplifted several meters. This rise in the sea floor generated a massive tsunami with an estimated height of 28 m that killed approximately 280,000 people along the coast of the Indian Ocean. The initial quake was followed by a series of aftershocks along the arc of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The entire event severely damaged the fishing infrastructure.</p><br>
<h3>Volcanic activity</h3><br>
<p>Within the sea, to the east of the main Great Andaman island group, lies Barren Island, the only presently active volcano associated with the Indian subcontinent. This island-volcano is 3 km in diameter and rises 354 meters above the sea level. Its recent activity resumed in 1991 after a quiet period of almost 200 years. It is caused by the ongoing subduction of the India Plate beneath the Andaman island arc, which forces magma to rise in this location of the Burma Plate. The last eruption has started on 13 May 2008 and still continues. The volcanic island of Narcondam which lies further to the north was also formed by this process; however, no records exist of its activity.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate of Andaman Sea is determined by the monsoons of southeast Asia. The wind system over the regime reverses every year. The region experiences north-easterlies with an average windspeed of 5 m/s in the months of November to February. During these months, the western part of the domain experiences maximum wind intensity. It weakens by March–April and reverses to strong south-westerlies from May to September, with mean wind speeds touching 8 m/s in June, July and August, distributed nearly uniform over the entire basin. The wind plummets by October and switch back to north-easterlies from November.</p><br>
<p>Air temperature is stable over the year at 26 °C in February and 27 °C in August. Precipitation is as high as 3,000 mm/year and mostly occurs in summer. Sea currents are south-easterly and easterly in winter and south-westerly and westerly in summer. The average surface water temperature is 26–28 °C in February and 29 °C in May. The water temperature is constant at 4.8 °C at the depths of 1,600 m and below. Salinity is 31.5–32.5‰ (parts per thousand) in summer and 30.0–33.0‰ in winter in the southern part. In the northern part, it decreases to 20–25‰ due to the inflow of fresh water from the Irrawaddy River. Tides are semidiurnal (i.e. rising twice a day) with the amplitude of up to 7.2 meters.</p><br>
<p>The effect of wind stress on ocean surface is explained with the help of wind stress curl. The net divergence of water in the ocean mixed layer results in Ekman Pumping. The comparison between the two seasons elicits a very strong negative pumping velocity of more than 5m/day along the north coast of Indonesia from May to September (shown here, June). This signifies a probable tendency of coastal downwelling in Summers. Besides, it is also observed that the region develops a weak but positive pumping velocity (less than 3m/day) at the mouth of GC in Winters (here, December).</p><br>
<h2>Fluid dynamics – circulation, transport and waves</h2><br>
<p>Generally, the currents are found to be stronger at the south than any other part of the basin.</p><br>
<p>It is observed that the water level rises in the basin between April and November with maximum rate of piling up of water during April and October (marked by steep slope of the curve). The rise in Sea Surface Height (SSH) is attributed to the following; Rainfall, Fresh water influx from Rivers and inflow of water through the three major straits. Except the last factor, the contributions from Rainfall and Rivers are quantifiable and are hence expressed in volumes of water for comparison. From this, the expected influx through straits (=SSH anomaly – Rainfall – River Influx) could be deduced. Here, the evaporative losses are not accounted owing to its diminutive order of magnitude compared to precipitation (Previous studies show that the annual mean freshwater gain (precipitation minus evaporation) of Andaman sea is 120 cm/year). It is found that the SSH of the basin is primarily dictated by the transport of water through the straits. The contributions from Rainfall and Rivers become substantial only during Summers. Hence, a net inward flow occurs through the straits between April and November, followed by net outward transport till March.</p><br>
<p>The basin experiences very high rate of transport of water through straits in April and October. This is a period of equatorial Wyrtki jets, which hit the coast of Sumatra and reflects back as Rossby Waves and coastal Kelvin Waves. These Kelvin waves are guided along the eastern boundary of Indian Ocean and a part of this signal shall propagate into Andaman sea. And the northern coast of Sumatra is the first to sense its effect. The 20 degree isotherms which deepens during the same period, is suggestive of the downwelling nature of Kelvin waves. The waves further propagate along the eastern boundary of Andaman sea which is confirmed by the differential deepening of 20 degree isotherms along longitudes 94E and 97E (averaged over latitudes 8 N and 13 N) are studied. The longitudes are chosen such that one represents the western part of the basin (94E) and the other along the steep continental slope on the eastern side of basin (97E). It is observed that both the longitudes experience deepening of the isotherms in April and October, but the effect is more pronounced at 97E (isotherms deepen by 30m in April and 10m in October). This is a concrete signature of downwelling in the basin and is definitely not forced locally as the winds are weaker during this period. This confirms unequivocally that the sudden burst of water into the basin through the straits, intensification of eastern boundary currents and the coincidental deepening of isotherms in April and October are the direct consequence of the propagation of downwelling Kelvin waves in Andaman sea, remotely forced by equatorial Wyrtki jets. The evolution of vorticity in the basin is suggestive of strong shear in the flow during different times of the year and further indicates the presence of low frequency geophysical waves (such as westward propagating Rossby waves) and other transient eddies.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>The coastal areas of the Andaman Sea are characterized by mangrove forests and seagrass meadows. Mangroves cover between more than 600 km² of the Thai shores of Malay Peninsula whereas seagrass meadows occupy an area of 79 km². Mangroves are largely responsible for the high productivity of the coastal waters – their roots trap soil and sediment and provide shelter from predators and nursery for fish and small aquatic organisms. Their body protects the shore from the wind and waves, and their detritus are a part of the aquatic food chain. A significant part of the Thai mangrove forests in the Andaman Sea was removed during the extensive brackish water shrimp. Mangroves were also significantly damaged by the 2004 tsunami. They were partly replanted after that, but their area is still gradually decreasing due to human activities.</p><br>
<p>Other important sources of nutrients in the Andaman Sea are seagrass and the mud bottoms of lagoons and coastal areas. They also create a habitat or temporal shelter for many burrowing and benthic organisms. Many aquatic species migrate from and to seagrass either daily or at certain stages of their life cycle. The human activities which damage seagrass beds include waste water discharge from coastal industry, shrimp farms and other forms of coastal development, as well as trawling and the use of push nets and dragnets. The 2004 tsunami affected 3.5% of seagrass areas along the Andaman Sea via siltation and sand sedimentation and 1.5% suffered total habitat loss.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>The sea waters along the Malay Peninsula favor molluscan growth, and there are about 280 edible fish species belonging to 75 families. Of those, 232 species (69 families) are found in mangroves and 149 species (51 families) reside in seagrass; so 101 species are common to both habitats. The sea also hosts many vulnerable fauna species, including dugong (Dugong dugon), several dolphin species, such as Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) and four species of sea turtles: critically endangered leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) and hawksbill turtle (Eletmochelys imbricata) and threatened green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and Olive Ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea). There are only about 150 dugongs in the Andaman Sea, scattered between Ranong and Satun Provinces. These species are sensitive to the degradation of seagrass meadows.</p><br>
<p>Coral reefs are estimated to occupy 73,364 rai in the Andaman Sea with only 6.4 percent in ideal condition.</p><br>
<h2>Human activities</h2><br>
<p>The sea has long been used for fishing and transportation of goods between the coastal countries. Thailand alone harvested about 943,000 tonnes of fish in 2005 and about 710,000 tonnes in 2000. Of those 710,000 tonnes, 490,000 are accounted for by trawling (1,017 vessels), 184,000 by purse seine (415 vessels), and about 30,000 by gillnets. Of Thailand&#39;s total marine catch, 41 percent is caught in the Gulf of Thailand and 19 percent in the Andaman Sea. Forty percent is caught in waters outside Thailand&#39;s EEZ.</p><br>
<p>Production numbers are significantly smaller for Malaysia and are comparable, or higher, for Myanmar. Competition for fish resulted in numerous conflicts between Myanmar and Thailand. In 1998 and 1999, they resulted in fatalities on both sides and nearly escalated into a military conflict. In both cases, the Thai navy intervened when Burmese vessels tried to intercept Thai fishing boats in the contested sea areas, and Thai fighter aircraft were thought to be deployed by the National Security Council. Thai fishing boats were also frequently confronted by the Malaysian navy to the extent that the Thai government had to caution its own fishers against fishing without license in foreign waters.</p><br>
<p>The 2004 marine production in Thailand was composed of: pelagic fish 33 percent, demersal fish 18 percent, cephalopod 7.5 percent, crustaceans 4.5 percent, trash fish 30 percent and others 7 percent. Trash fish refers to non-edible species, edible species of low commercial value and juveniles, which are released to the sea. Pelagic fishes were distributed between anchovies (Stolephorus spp., 19 percent), Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma, 18 percent), sardinellas (Sardinellars spp., 14 percent), scad (11 percent), longtail tuna (Thunnus tonggol, 9 percent), eastern little tuna (Euthynnus affinis, 6 percent), trevallies (6 percent), bigeye scad (5 percent), Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta, 4 percent), king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla, 3 percent), torpedo scad (Megalaspis cordyla , 2 percent), wolf herrings (1 percent), and others (2 percent). Demersal fish production was dominated by purple-spotted bigeye (Priacanthus tayenus), threadfin bream (Nemipterus hexodon), brushtooth lizardfish (Saurida undosquamis), slender lizardfish (Saurida elongata) and Jinga shrimp (Metapenaeus affinis). Most species are overfished since the 1970s–1990s, except for Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus commersoni), carangidae and torpedo scad (Meggalaspis spp.). The overall overfishing rate was 333 percent for pelagic and 245 percent for demersal species in 1991. Cephalopods are divided into squid, cuttlefish and molluscs, where squid and cuttlefish in Thai waters consists of 10 families, 17 genera and over 30 species. The main mollusk species captured in the Andaman Sea are scallop, blood cockle (Anadara granosa) and short-necked clam. Their collection requires bottom dredge gears, which damage the sea floor and the gears themselves and are becoming unpopular. So, the mollusk production has decreased from 27,374 tonnes in 1999 to 318 tonnes in 2004. While crustaceans composed only 4.5 percent of the total marine products in 2004 by volume, they accounted for 21 percent of the total value. They were dominated by banana prawn, tiger prawn, king prawn, school prawn, bay lobster (Thenus orientalis), mantis shrimp, swimming crabs and mud crabs. The total catch in 2004 was 51,607 tonnes for squid and cuttlefish and 36,071 tonnes for crustaceans.</p><br>
<p>The sea&#39;s mineral resources include tin deposits off the coasts of Malaysia and Thailand. Major ports are Dawei, Mawlamyine, Mergui, Pathein and Yangon in Myanmar; George Town and Penang in Malaysia; and Belawan in Indonesia.</p><br>
<p>The Andaman Sea, particularly the western coast of the Malay Peninsula, is rich in coral reefs and offshore islands with spectacular topography, such as Phuket, Phi Phi Islands, Ko Tapu and islands of Krabi Province. Despite having been damaged by the 2004 Sumatra earthquake and tsunami, they remain popular tourist destinations. The nearby coast also has numerous marine national parks – 16 only in Thailand, and four of them are candidates for inclusion into UNESCO World Heritage Sites.</p><br>
<p>The Yellow Sea is the name given to the northern part of the East China Sea, which is a marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean. It is located between mainland China and the Korean Peninsula. Its name comes from the sand particles from Gobi Desert sand storms that turn the surface of the water golden yellow.</p><br>
<p>The innermost bay of the Yellow Sea is called the Bohai Sea (previously Pechihli Bay or Chihli Bay). Into it flow both the Yellow River (through Shandong province and its capital Jinan) and Hai He (through Beijing and Tianjin). Deposits of sand and silt from those rivers contribute to the sea colour.</p><br>
<p>The northern extension of the Yellow Sea is called the Korea Bay.</p><br>
<p>The Yellow Sea is one of four seas named after common colour terms — the others being the Black Sea, the Red Sea and the White Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Extent</h3><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Yellow Sea (which it also names as "Hwang Hai") as follows:</p><br>
<p>On the South. The parallel of 33°17&#39; North from Saisyu To (Quelpart) to the mainland.</p><br>
<p>On the Southeast. From the Western extreme of Quelpart to Ka Nyo or West Pinnacle Island (34°13N) in the Mengoru Group, thence to the North point of Oku To (34°22N), to the West point of Small South Stone Island (Syo-Zyonan To) and the North point of Great South Stone Island (Zyonan To) (34°24N) to a point on the coast of Tin To (34°25N) along the Northwest coast of this island to the North point thereof, and thence on a line in a Northeasterly direction to the mainland of Tyosen (Korea).</p><br>
<h3>Physiography</h3><br>
<p>The Yellow Sea, excluding the Bohai, extends by about 960 km from north to south and about 700 km from east to west; it has an area of about 380,000 km&sup2; and the volume of about 17,000 km3. Its depth is only 44 m on average, with a maximum of 152 m. The sea is a flooded section of continental shelf that formed after the last ice age (some 10,000 years ago) as sea levels rose 120 m to their current levels. The depth gradually increases from north to south.</p><br>
<p>Major islands of the sea include Anmado, Baengnyeongdo, Daebudo, Deokjeokdo, Gageodo, Ganghwado, Hauido, Heuksando, Hongdo, Jejudo, Jindo, Muuido, Sido, Silmido, Sindo, Wando, Yeongjongdo and Yeonpyeongdo (all in South Korea).</p><br>
<h3>Climate and hydrology</h3><br>
<p>The area has cold, dry winters with strong northerly monsoons blowing from late November to March. Average January temperatures are -10 &deg;C in the north and 3 &deg;C in the south. Summers are wet and warm with frequent typhoons between June and October. Air temperatures range between 10 and. The average annual precipitation increases from about 500 mm in the north to 1,000 mm in the south. Fog is frequent along the coasts, especially in the upwelling cold-water areas.</p><br>
<p>The sea has a warm cyclone current. It is a part of the Kuroshio Current, which diverges near the western part of Japan and flows northward into the Yellow Sea at the speed of below 0.8 km/h. Southward currents prevail near the sea coast, especially in the winter monsoon period.</p><br>
<p>The water temperature is close to freezing in the northern part in winter, so drift ice patches and continuous ice fields form and hinder navigation between November and March. The water temperature and salinity are homogeneous across the depth. The southern waters are warmer at 6 –. In spring and summer, the upper layer is warmed up by the sun and diluted by the fresh water from rivers, while the deeper water remains cold and saline. This deep water stagnates and slowly moves south. Commercial bottom-dwelling fishes are found around this mass of water, especially at its southern part. Summer temperatures range between 22 and. The average salinity is relatively low, at 30‰ in the north to 33–34‰ in the south, dropping to 26‰ or lower near the river deltas. In the southwest monsoon season (June to August) the increased rainfall and runoff further reduce the salinity of the upper sea layer. Water transparency increases from about 10 m in the north up to 45 m in the south.</p><br>
<p>Tides are semidiurnal, i.e. rise twice a day. Their amplitude varies between about 0.9 and at the coast of China. Tides are higher at the Korean Peninsula, typically ranging between 4 and and reaching the maximum in spring. The tidal system rotates in a counterclockwise direction. The speed of the tidal current is generally less than 1.6 km/h in the middle of the sea, but may increase to more than 5.6 km/h near the coasts.</p><br>
<p>The tide-related sea level variations result in a land pass 2.9 km long and 10 – wide opening for approximately an hour between Jindo and Modo islands. The event occurs about twice a year, at the beginning of May and in the middle of June. It had long been celebrated in a local festival called "Jindo Sea Parting Festival", but was largely unknown to the world until 1975, when the French ambassador Pierre Randi described the phenomenon in a French newspaper.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The sea is rich in seaweed (predominantly kelp, Laminaria japonica), cephalopods, crustaceans, shellfishes, clams, and especially in blue-green algae which bloom in summer and contribute to the water color (see image above). For example, the seaweed production in the area was as high as 1.5 million tonnes in 1979 for China alone. The abundance of all those species increases toward the south and indicates high sea productivity that accounts for the large fish production in the sea. Newer species of goby fish was also discovered.</p><br>
<p>The southern part of the Yellow Sea, including the entire west coast of Korea, contains a 10 km belt of intertidal mudflats, which has the total area of 2,850 km&sup2; and is maintained by 4 –. Those flats consist of highly productive sediments with a rich benthic fauna and are of great importance for migratory waders and shorebirds. Surveys show that the area is the single most important site for migratory birds on northward migration in the entire East Asian – Australasian Flyway, with more than 35 species occurring in internationally significant numbers. Two million birds, at minimum, pass through at the time, and about half that number use it on southward migration. About 300,000 migrating birds were transiting annually only through the Saemangeum tidal flat area. This estuary was however dammed by South Korea in 1991–2006 that resulted in drying off the land.</p><br>
<p>Land reclamation also took 65% of the intertidal area in China between the 1950s and 2002, and there are plans to reclaim a further 45%.</p><br>
<p>Oceanic megafaunasbio-diversities, such as of marine mammals, sea turtles, and larger fish drastically decreased in modern time not only by pollution but also mainly by direct hunting, most extensively Japanese industrial whaling, illegal mass operations by Soviet with supports from Japan. and fewer species survived to today although being still in serious perils. Those include spotted seals, and cetaceans such as minke whales, killer whales, false killer whales, and finless porpoises, but nonetheless all the remnants of species listed could be in very small numbers. Historically, large whales were very abundant either for summering and wintering in the Yellow and Bohai Seas. For example, a unique population of resident fin whales and gray whales were historically presented, or possibly hosted some North Pacific right whales and Humpback whales (3 whales including a cow calf pair was observed at Changhai County in 2015) year-round other than migrating individuals, and many other migratory species such as Bairds beaked whales.</p><br>
<p>Even blue whales, Japanese sea lions, dugongs (in southern regions only), and leatherback turtles used to breed or migrate into Yellow and Bohai seas.</p><br>
<p>Spotted seals are only species thriving in today&#39;s Yellow sea and being the only resident species as well. A sanctuary for these seals is situated at Baengnyeongdo which is also known for local finless porpoises. Great white sharks have been spotted to prey on seals in these areas as well.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The coasts of the Yellow Sea are very densely populated, at approximately 250 PD/km2. The sea waters had been used for fishing by the Chinese, Korean and Japanese ships for centuries. Especially rich in fish are the bottom layers. About 200 fish species are exploited commercially, especially sea bream, croakers, lizard fishes, prawns, cutlassfish, horse mackerel, squid, eel, Pacific herring, chub mackerel, flounder and jellyfish. The intensity of fishing has been gradually increasing for China and Korea and decreasing for Japan. For example, the production volumes for China rose from 619,000 tonnes in 1985 to 1,984,400 tonnes in 1996. All species are overfished, however, and while the total catchments are rising, the fish population is continuously declining for most species.</p><br>
<p>Navigation is another traditional activity in the Yellow Sea. The main Chinese ports are Dalian, Tianjin, Qingdao and Qinhuangdao. The major South Korean ports on the Yellow Sea are Incheon, Gunsan and Mokpo, and that for North Korea is Nampho, the outport of Pyongyang. The Bohai Train Ferry provides a shortcut between the Liaodong Peninsula and Shandong. A major naval accident occurred on 24 November 1999 at Yantai, Shandong, China when the 9,000-ton Chinese ferry Dashun caught fire and capsized in rough seas. About 300 people were killed making it the worst maritime incident in China.</p><br>
<p>Oil exploration has been successful in the Chinese and North Korean portions of the sea, with the proven and estimated reserves of about 9 and 20 billion tonnes, respectively. However, the study and exploration of the sea is somewhat hindered by insufficient sharing of information between the involved countries. China initiated collaborations with foreign oil companies in 1979, but this initiative declined later.</p><br>
<p>A major oil spill occurred on 16 July 2010 when a pipeline exploded at the north-east port of Dalian, causing a wide-scale fire and spreading about 1,500 tonnes of oil over the sea area of 430 km&sup2;. The port had been closed and fishing suspended until the end of August. Eight hundred fishing boats and 40 specialized vessels were mobilized to relieve the environmental damage.</p><br>
<h2>State of the environment</h2><br>
<p>The Yellow Sea is considered among the most degraded marine areas on earth. Loss of natural coastal habitats due to land reclamation has resulted in the destruction of more than 60% of tidal wetlands around the Yellow Sea coastline in approximately 50 years. Rapid coastal development for agriculture, aquaculture and industrial development are considered the primary drivers of coastal destruction in the region.</p><br>
<p>In addition to land reclamation, the Yellow Sea ecosystem is facing several other serious environmental problems. Pollution is widespread and deterioration of pelagic and benthic habitat quality has occurred, and harmful algal blooms frequently occur. Invasion of introduced species are having a detrimental effect on the Yellow Sea environment. There are 25 intentionally introduced species and 9 unintentionally introduced species in the Yellow Sea Large Marine Ecosystem. Declines of biodiversity, fisheries and ecosystem services in the Yellow Sea are widespread.</p><br>
<p>The Hai River , formerly known as the Peiho, Pei He or Pei Ho , is a Chinese river connecting Beijing to Tianjin and the Bohai Sea.</p><br>
<p>The Hai River at Tianjin is formed by the confluence of five rivers, the Southern Canal, Ziya River, Daqing River, Yongding River, and the Northern Canal. The southern and northern canals are parts of the Grand Canal. The Southern Canal is joined by the Wei River at Linqing. The Northern Canal joins with the Bai He (or Chaobai River) at Tongzhou. The Northern Canal (sharing a channel with Bai He) is also the only waterway from the sea to Beijing. Therefore, early Westerners also called the Hai He the Bai He.</p><br>
<p>At Tianjin, through the Grand Canal, the Hai connects with the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. The construction of the Grand Canal greatly altered the rivers of the Hai He basin. Previously, the Wei, Ziya Yongding and Bai Rivers flowed separately to the sea. The Grand Canal cut through the lower reaches of these rivers and fused them into one outlet to the sea, in the form of the current Hai He.</p><br>
<p>Hai He is 1,329 km long measured from the longest tributary. However, the Hai He is only around 70 km from Tianjin to its estuary. Its basin has an area of approximately 319,000 km&sup2;. Its annual flow is only half that of the Yellow River, or one-thirtieth that of the Yangtze River.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1863 seagoing ships could reach the head of navigation at Tongzhou, but the crooked river was difficult for large vessels.</p><br>
<p>During the Boxer Rebellion, Imperial Chinese forces deployed a weapon called "electric mines" on June 15, at the Baihe river before the Battle of Dagu Forts (1900), to prevent the western Eight-Nation Alliance from sending ships to attack. This was reported by American military intelligence in the United States. War Dept. by the United States. Adjutant-Generals Office. Military Information Division.(Issue 33 of Publication (United States. Adjutant-Generals Office. Military Information Division)</p><br>
<p>Issue 143 of Document, United States War Dept</p><br>
<p>Issue 33 of Publication, United States Adjutant-General&#39;s Office)</p><br>
<p>Like the Yellow River, the Hai is exceedingly muddy because of the powdery soil through which it flows. The silt carried by the water deposits in the lower reaches, sometimes causing flooding. The waters from the five major tributaries only have one shallow outlet to the sea, which makes such floods stronger. Because China&#39;s capital (and second largest city), Beijing, and the third largest city, Tianjin, both lie in the Hai He Basin, Hai He floods cause a significant loss. To alleviate flooding, reservoirs have been built and artificial channels dug to divert excess water directly into the sea. For example, the Chaobai River is diverted to the Chaobai Xin River and no longer joins with the Northern Canal.</p><br>
<p>Due to industrial and urban development in the Hai He Basin, the volume of water flow has greatly decreased. Many smaller tributaries and some of the major tributaries are dry for most of the year. With reduced water flow, water pollution worsens. The water shortage in the Hai He basin is expected to be alleviated by the South-North Water Transfer Project.</p><br>
<p>Madagascar is a large island in the Indian Ocean off the eastern coast of southern Africa, east of Mozambique. It is the fourth largest island in the world. The highest point is Maromokotro, in the Tsaratanana Massif region in the north of the island, at 2,876 m. The capital Antananarivo is in the Hauts Plateaux near the centre of the island. Madagascar has a total area of 587,040 km&sup2; with 581,540 km&sup2; of land and 5,500 km&sup2; of water. Madagascar is 400 kilometres  east of mainland Africa.</p><br>
<p>Madagascar originated as part of the Gondwana supercontinent. Its west coast was formed when Africa broke off from Gondwana around 165 million years ago. Madagascar eventually broke off from India about 88 million years ago. It is geologically located within the Somali plate.</p><br>
<h2>Geographical regions</h2><br>
<p>Madagascar can be divided into five general geographical regions: the east coast, the Tsaratanana Massif, the central highlands, the west coast, and the southwest. The highest elevations parallel the east coast.</p><br>
<h3>East coast</h3><br>
<p>The east coast consists of a narrow band of lowlands about one kilometer wide, formed from the sedimentation of alluvial soils, and an intermediate zone composed of steep bluffs alternating with ravines bordering an escarpment of about 500 m in elevation, which gives access to the central highlands. The coastal region extends roughly from north of Baie d&#39;Antongil, the most prominent feature on the Masoala Peninsula, to the far north of the island. The coastline is straight, with the exception of a bay, offering less in the way of natural harbors than the west coast.</p><br>
<p>The Canal des Pangalanes, an 800 km-long lagoon formed naturally by the washing of sand up on the island by the Indian Ocean currents and by the silting of rivers, is a feature of the coast; it has been used both as a means of transportation up and down the coast and as a fishing area. The beach slopes steeply into deep water. The east coast is considered dangerous for swimmers and sailors because of the large number of sharks that frequent the shoreline. Madagascar also has many mountains, forests, rivers, and lakes.</p><br>
<h3>Tsaratanana Massif</h3><br>
<p>The Tsaratanana Massif region at the north end of the island contains, at 2,880 m, the highest point on the island. Further north is the Montagne dAmbre (Ambohitra), which is of volcanic origin. The coastline is deeply indented; two prominent features are the natural harbor at Antsiranana (Diégo Suarez), just south of the Cap dAmbre (Tanjon&#39; i Bobaomby), and the large island of Nosy-Be to the West limits the potential of a port at Antsiranana by impeding the flow of traffic from other parts of the island.</p><br>
<h3>Central highlands</h3><br>
<p>The central highlands, which range from 800 to 1800 m in altitude, contain a wide variety of topographies: rounded and eroded hills, massive granite outcrops, extinct volcanoes, eroded peneplains, and alluvial plains and marshes, which have been converted into irrigated rice fields. The central highlands extend from the Tsaratanana Massif in the north to the Ivakoany Massif in the south. They are defined rather clearly by the escarpments along the east coast, and they slope gently to the west coast. The central highlands include the Anjafy High Plateaux; the volcanic formations of Itasy (Lake Itasy is in a volcanic crater) and the Ankaratra Massif, reaching a height of 2,643 m. The Isalo Roiniforme Massif lies between the central highlands and the west coast.</p><br>
<p>Antananarivo, the national capital, is located in the northern portion of the central highlands at 1,276 m above sea level. A prominent feature of the central highlands is a rift valley running north to south, located east of Antananarivo and including Lac Alaotra, the largest body of water on the island, having a length of 40 km. The lake is located 761 m above sea level and is bordered by two cliffs, rising 701 m to the west and 488 m to the east, which form the walls of a valley. This region has experienced geological subsidence, and earth tremors are frequent.</p><br>
<h3>West coast</h3><br>
<p>The west coast, composed of sedimentary formations, is more indented than the east coast, thus offering a number of harbors sheltered from cyclones, such as the harbor at Mahajanga. Deep bays and well-protected harbors have attracted explorers, traders, and pirates from Europe, Africa, and the Middle East since ancient times; thus, the area has served as an important bridge between Madagascar and the outside world. Silting up of harbors on this coast, caused by sediment from the high levels of erosion suffered inland in Madagascar, is a major problem. The broad alluvial plains found on the coast between Mahajanga (Majunga) and Toliara (Tuléar), which are believed to have great agricultural potential, are thinly inhabited, in many places covered with swamps of Madagascar mangroves, and remain largely unexplored, although they are the subject of mineral and hydrocarbon exploration activity. The giant oil fields of Tsimiroro (heavy oil) and Bemolanga (ultra heavy oil) lie towards the west of the island.</p><br>
<h3>Southwest</h3><br>
<p>The southwest is bordered on the east by the Ivakoany Massif and on the north by the Isala Roiniforme Massif. It includes two regions along the south coast, the Mahafaly Plateau and the desert region occupied by the Antandroy people.</p><br>
<h2>Rivers and lakes</h2><br>
<p>The Mananara and Mangoro rivers flow from the central highlands to the east coast, as does the Maningory, which flows from Lake Alaotra. Other rivers flowing east into the Indian Ocean include the Bemarivo, the Ivondro River, and the Mananjary. These rivers tend to be short because the watershed is located close to the east coast. Owing to the steep elevations, they flow rapidly, often over spectacular waterfalls.</p><br>
<p>The rivers flowing to the west coast discharging into the Mozambique Channel, tend to be lengthier and flow more sluggishly due to the more gradual slope of the land. The major rivers on the west coast are the Sambirano, the Mahajamba, the Betsiboka (the part of Mahajanga is located at the mouth), the Mania, the North and South Mahavavy, the Mangoky, and the Onilahy. The Ikopa, which flows past Antananarivo, is a tributary of the Betsiboka. The Mangoky River has a basin area of some 50,000 km&sup2 the Ikopa River and the Betsiboka River have basin areas of 18,550 and. The Onilahy has a basin area of some 12,435 km&sup2, but being in the driest part of the island the Onilahy runs dry during certain months in dry years.</p><br>
<p>Important lakes, aside from Alaotra, include Lake Kinkony in the northwest, Lake Itasy in the center and Lake Ihotry in the southwest.</p><br>
<h2>Soils</h2><br>
<p>Madagascar has been called the "Great Red Island" because of the prominence of red lateritic soils. The red soils predominate in the central highlands, although there are much richer soils in the regions of former volcanic activity, Itasy and Ankaratra, and Tsaratanana to the north. A narrow band of alluvial soils is found all along the east coast and at the mouths of the major rivers on the west coast; clay, sand, and limestone mixtures are found in the west; and shallow or skeletal laterite and limestone are located in the south. Deforestation and grazing mean that the soils suffer from aggressive erosion in many locations.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate is tropical along the coast, temperate inland, and arid in the south. The weather is dominated by the southeastern trade winds that originate in the Indian Ocean anticyclone, a center of high atmospheric pressure that seasonally changes its position over the ocean. Madagascar has two seasons: a warm, wet season from November to April; and a cooler, dry season from May to October. There is, however, great variation in climate owing to elevation and position relative to dominant winds. The east coast has an equatorial climate; being most directly exposed to the trade winds it has the highest rainfall, averaging as high as 4,000 mm annually in some places depending on elevation (direction of slope on mountainsides), distance to the coast, and latitudinal location. This region is notorious for a hot, humid climate in which tropical fevers are endemic and also for the destructive cyclones that occur during the rainy season, coming in principally from the direction of the Mascarene Islands. Because rain clouds discharge much of their moisture east of the highest elevations on the island, the central highlands are drier and, owing to the altitude, also cooler. Thunderstorms are common during the rainy season in the central highlands and the eastern coastal lowlands.</p><br>
<p>Antananarivo receives practically all of its average annual 1,400 mm of rainfall between November and April. The dry season is sunny, although somewhat chilly, especially in the mornings. Although frosts are rare in Antananarivo, they are common at higher elevations.</p><br>
<p>Although hail falls on many of the higher areas of the island (including Antananarivo), there is no snowfall except on the Ankaratra massif where above 2,400 m it may occasionally fall and even remain for several days.</p><br>
<p>The west coast is drier than either the east coast or the central highlands because the trade winds lose their humidity by the time they reach this region. The southwest and the extreme south are semidesert; as little as 330 mm of rain falls annually at Toliara. Overall, surface water is most abundant along the east coast and in the far north (with the exception of the area around Cap d&#39;Ambre, which has relatively little surface water). Amounts diminish to the west and south, and the driest regions are in the extreme south.</p><br>
<p>Madagascar occasionally experiences the impact of cyclones. February 2–4, 1994, Madagascar was struck by Cyclone Geralda, the worst cyclone to come ashore on the island since 1927. The cyclone killed seventy people and destroyed enough property to leave approximately 500,000 homeless, including 30,000 in Antananarivo and 80,000 in Toamasina. The cyclone also significantly damaged the country&#39;s infrastructure, most notably coastal roads, railroads, and telecommunications, as well as agriculture. Damage was estimated at US$45 million.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The island of Madagascar has been described as an "alternate world" or a "world apart" because of the uniqueness and rarity of many of its plant and animal species. Their characteristics are believed to reflect the island&#39;s origins as a part of Gondwanaland and its many millions of years of isolation following the breakup of the landmass.</p><br>
<p>Many of the characteristic African species, large mammals as the elephant, rhinoceros, giraffe, zebra, and antelope and predators such as lions and leopards, do not exist in Madagascar. In addition, the island has been spared the great variety of venomous snakes indigenous to the African continent. Although it is assumed that most life forms on the island had an African (or South American) origin, isolation has allowed old species&mdash;elsewhere extinct&mdash;to survive and new species unique to the island to evolve. Thus, a great number of plant, insect, reptile, and fish species are endemic to Madagascar, and all indigenous land mammal species&mdash;66 in all&mdash;are unique to the island.</p><br>
<p>Madagascar was once covered almost completely by forests, but slash and burn practices for dry rice cultivation has denuded most of the landscape, especially in the central highlands. Rain forests are concentrated on the steep hillsides along a slender north-south axis bordering the east coast, from the Tsaratanana Massif in the north to Tolagnaro in the south. Secondary growth, which has replaced the original forest and consists to a large extent of traveller&#39;s trees, raffia palm, and baobabs, is found in many places along the east coast and in the north. The vegetation of the central highlands and the west coast is for the most part savanna or steppe, and coarse prairie grass predominates where erosion has not exposed the orange-red lateritic soil. In the southwest, the vegetation is adapted to desert conditions.</p><br>
<p>The remaining rain forest contains a great number of unique plant species. The country has some 900 species of orchid. Bananas, mangoes, coconut, vanilla, and other tropical plants grow on the coasts, and the eucalyptus tree, brought from Australia, is widespread.</p><br>
<p>Wood and charcoal from the forests are used to meet 80% of domestic fuel needs. As a result, wood has become scarce. The World Bank in 1990 launched an environmental program that has increased the planting of pine and eucalyptus to satisfy fuel needs.</p><br>
<h2>Natural resources</h2><br>
<p>Madagascar has a number of natural resources, including graphite, chromite, coal, bauxite, rare Earth elements, salt, quartz, tar sands, semi-precious stones and mica. There are also fishing areas offshore and potential for hydropower.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, it was estimated that 5.96% of the land area was used for arable land and 1.02% had permanent crops. Twenty-six percent of the land is forested.</p><br>
<p>The majority of the population depend on subsistence farming, largely rice and cattle. The manufacturing sector is small but growing.</p><br>
<h2>Environmental issues</h2><br>
<p>Madagascar is currently suffering in some areas from soil erosion as a result of deforestation and overgrazing, desertification, and contamination of surface water with raw sewage and organic waste. Several species of flora and fauna that are unique to the islands are endangered. Regular cyclones cause flooding in low-lying coastal regions</p><br>
<h2>Extreme points</h2><br>
<p>This is a list of the extreme points of Madagascar, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.</p><br>
<p>Northernmost Point - Cap D&#39;Ambre, Antsiranana Province at 11°57′00″S 49°15′56″E</p><br>
<p>Easternmost Point - Ile Ngontsy, Antsiranana Province at 15°15′48″S 50°29′36″E</p><br>
<p>Easternmost point (mainland) - Cap Est, Antsiranana Province at 15°15′56″S 50°29′10″E</p><br>
<p>Southernmost Point - Cape Vohimena (Cap Sainte Marie), Toliara Province at 25°36′24″S 45°10′02″E</p><br>
<p>Westernmost Point - Nosy Hao Toliara Province at 22°05′13″S 43°11′18″E</p><br>
<p>Westernmost Point (mainland) - Pointe Mananonoka, Toliara Province at 22°15′04″S 43°13′13″E</p><br>
<p>The IJsselmeer , is a closed off inland bay in the central Netherlands bordering the provinces of Flevoland, North Holland and Friesland. It measures 1100 km² with an average depth of 5.5 m. The river IJssel flows into the IJsselmeer.</p><br>
<p>The first two letters of the name are capitalized because IJ is a digraph or even a ligature in Dutch, so it is treated as a single letter.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Two thousand years ago Pomponius Mela, a Roman geographer, mentioned a complex of lakes at the current location of the IJsselmeer. He called it Lacus Flevo. Over the centuries, the lake banks crumbled away due to flooding and wave action and the lake grew considerably. During the 12th and 13th centuries, storm surges and rising sea levels flooded large areas of land between the lake and the North Sea, turning the lake into a bay of the North Sea, called the Zuiderzee. The Zuiderzee continued to be a threat to the Dutch, especially when northwesterly storms funnel North Sea waters towards the English Channel, creating very high tides along the Dutch coast. During the 17th century, Zuiderzee dikes collapsed several times and plans were drawn up to eliminate the threat by draining the bay. Later drainage plans focused on creating fertile farmland. But it never got beyond the planning stage. Only after the flood of 1916, Dutch parliament approved the Zuiderzee Works, a major hydraulic engineering project that involved building dikes, draining parts of the Zuiderzee and constructing the Afsluitdijk to keep tides and high water out.</p><br>
<p>In 1932 the Zuiderzee was closed off by the Afsluitdijk, a 32 km dike connecting Friesland and Noord-Holland on either side of the Zuiderzee. The Zuiderzee was no longer a sea inlet and was renamed IJsselmeer (Lake IJssel). The continued flow of riverwater flushed out the saltwater.</p><br>
<p>From 1929 till 1967, over half the IJsselmeer was drained, creating 1,979 km of polders: Wieringermeerpolder, Noordoostpolder, East and South Flevoland.</p><br>
<p>In 1975, a dike was built between Enkhuizen and Lelystad as northern boundary of the Markerwaard, a planned but never realized polder in the IJsselmeer. This dike, the Houtribdijk or Markerwaarddijk, split the IJsselmeer in two parts. The former southern part of the IJsselmeer is now the hydrologically separate Markermeer.</p><br>
<p>In 1986 three polders in the IJsselmeer constituted the province of Flevoland, the twelfth province of the Netherlands.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>Due to considerable amounts of Rhinewater flowing through its distributary IJssel into the IJsselmeer, the closed off bay is functioning as a huge freshwater reservoir, serving as a source for agriculture and drinking water. Outlet sluices in the Afsluitdijk regulate the water level of the IJsselmeer.</p><br>
<p>The IJsselmeer continues to be used for transport and fishing. It also offers a number of opportunities for recreational activities, both on the water and on its shores. Due to the shallowness of the IJsselmeer, its cities and fishing villages remained mostly unspoilt and have many historical buildings.</p><br>
<p>Lake Huron  is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. Hydrologically, it comprises the easterly portion of Lake Michigan–Huron, having the same surface elevation as its westerly counterpart, to which it is connected by the 5 mi, 20 fathom Straits of Mackinac. It is shared on the north and east by the Canadian province of Ontario and on the south and west by the state of Michigan in the United States. The name of the lake is derived from early French explorers who named it for the Huron people inhabiting the region.</p><br>
<p>The Huronian glaciation was named due to evidence collected from Lake Huron region. The northern parts of the lake include the North Channel and Georgian Bay. Across the lake to the southwest is Saginaw Bay. The main inlet is the St. Marys River and the main outlet is the St. Clair.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>By surface area, Lake Huron is the second-largest of the Great Lakes, with a surface area of 23,007 square miles — of which 9,103 square miles lies in Michigan; and 13,904 square miles lies in Ontario — making it the third-largest fresh water lake on Earth (or the fourth-largest lake, if the Caspian Sea is counted as a lake). By volume however, Lake Huron is only the third largest of the Great Lakes, being surpassed by Lake Michigan and Lake Superior. When measured at the low water datum, the lake contains a volume of 850 mi3 and a shoreline length (including islands) of 3,827 mi.</p><br>
<p>The surface of Lake Huron is 577 ft above sea level. The lake&#39;s average depth is 32 fathoms 3 feet (195 ft), while the maximum depth is 125 fathoms (750 ft). It has a length of 206 smi and a greatest breadth of 183 smi.</p><br>
<p>Cities with over 10,000 people on Lake Huron include Sarnia, the largest city on Lake Huron, and Saugeen Shores in Canada and Bay City, Port Huron, and Alpena in the United States.</p><br>
<p>A large bay that protrudes northeast from Lake Huron into Ontario, Canada, is called Georgian Bay. A notable feature of the lake is Manitoulin Island, which separates the North Channel and Georgian Bay from Lake Hurons main body of water. It is the worlds largest lake island. Major centres on Georgian Bay include Owen Sound, Wasaga Beach, Collingwood, Midland, Penetanguishene, Port Severn and Parry Sound.</p><br>
<p>A smaller bay that protrudes southwest from Lake Huron into Michigan is called Saginaw Bay.</p><br>
<h3>Water levels</h3><br>
<p>Historic High Water</p><br>
<p>The lake fluctuates from month to month with the highest lake levels in October and November. The normal high-water mark is 2.00 ft above datum (577.5 ft or 176.0 m). In the summer of 1986, Lakes Michigan and Huron reached their highest level at 5.92 ft above datum. The high-water records began in February 1986 and lasted through the year, ending with January 1987. Water levels ranged from 3.67 to 5.92 ft above Chart Datum.</p><br>
<p>Historic Low Water</p><br>
<p>Lake levels tend to be the lowest in winter. The normal low-water mark is 1.00 ft below datum (577.5 ft or 176.0 m). In the winter of 1964, Lakes Michigan and Huron reached their lowest level at 1.38 ft below datum. As with the high-water records, monthly low-water records were set each month from February 1964 through January 1965. During this twelve-month period, water levels ranged from 1.38 to 0.71 ft below Chart Datum.</p><br>
<h3>Great Lakes Circle Tour</h3><br>
<p>The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Lake Huron has the largest shore line length of any of the Great Lakes, counting its 30,000 islands.</p><br>
<p>Lake Huron is separated from Lake Michigan, which lies at the same level, by the 5 mi, 20 fathom Straits of Mackinac, making them hydrologically the same body of water (sometimes called Lake Michigan-Huron and sometimes described as two lobes of the same lake). Aggregated, Lake Huron-Michigan, at 45,300 square miles, "is technically the world&#39;s largest freshwater lake." When counted separately, Lake Superior is 8,700 square miles larger than Huron and higher. Lake Superior drains into the St. Marys River at Sault Ste. Marie which then flows southward into Lake Huron. The water then flows south to the St. Clair River, at Port Huron, Michigan and Sarnia, Ontario.</p><br>
<p>The Great Lakes Waterway continues thence to Lake St. Clair; the Detroit River and Detroit, Michigan; into Lake Erie and thence – via Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River – to the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<p>Like the other Great Lakes, it was formed by melting ice as the continental glaciers retreated toward the end of the last ice age. Before this, Lake Huron was a low-lying depression through which flowed the now-buried Laurentian and Huronian Rivers; the lake bed was criss-crossed by a large network of tributaries to these ancient waterways, with many of the old channels still evident on bathymetric maps.</p><br>
<h3>Alpena-Amberley Ridge</h3><br>
<p>The Alpena-Amberley Ridge is an ancient ridge beneath the surface of Lake Huron, running roughly between Alpena, Michigan and Point Clark, Ontario. About 9,000 years ago, when water levels in Lake Huron were about 100 m below today&#39;s levels, the ridge was exposed and the land bridge was used as a migration route for large herds of caribou. Since 2008, archaeologists have discovered at least 60 stone constructions along the submerged ridge that are thought to have been used as hunting blinds by Paleo-Indians.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The extent of development among Eastern Woodlands Native American societies on the eve of European contact is indicated by the archaeological evidence of a town on or near Lake Huron that contained more than one hundred large structures housing a total population of between 4,000 and 6,000. The French, the first European visitors to the region, often referred to Lake Huron as La Mer Douce, "the fresh-water sea". In 1656, a map by French cartographer Nicolas Sanson refers to the lake by the name Karegnondi, a Wyandot word which has been variously translated as "Freshwater Sea", "Lake of the Hurons", or simply "lake". The lake was generally labeled "Lac des Hurons" (Lake of the Huron) on most early European maps.</p><br>
<h3>Storm of 1913</h3><br>
<p>On November 9, 1913, a great storm in Lake Huron sank ten ships and more than twenty were driven ashore. The storm, which raged for 16 hours, killed 235 seamen.</p><br>
<p>Matoa had passed between Port Huron, Michigan, and Sarnia, Ontario, just after midnight. On November 9, just after six in the morning, Senator pushed upstream. Less than an hour later, Manola passed through. Captain Frederick W. Light of Manola reported that both the Canadian and the American weather stations had storm flag signals flying from their weather towers. Following behind at 7:00 a.m. that Sunday, Regina steamed out of Sarnia into the northwest gale. The warnings now had been up for four hours. Manola passed Regina off Port Sanilac, 22 smi up the lake. Captain Light determined that if it continued to deteriorate, he would seek shelter at Harbor Beach, Michigan, another 30 smi up the lake. There, he could seek shelter behind the breakwater. Before he reached Harbor Beach, the winds turned to the northeast and the lake began to rise. It would be noon before he reached Harbor Beach and ran for shelter. The waves were so violent that Manola touched bottom entering the harbor. With help from a tugboat, Manola tied up to the break wall with eight lines. It was about 3:00 p.m. when Manola was secured and the crew prepared to drop anchor. As they worked, the cables began to snap from wind pressure against the hull. To keep from being pushed aground, they kept their bow into the wind with the engines running half to full in turns, yet the ship still drifted 800 ft before its movement was arrested. Waves breaking over the ship damaged several windows and the crew reported seeing portions of the concrete break wall peeling off as the waves struck it.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, fifty miles farther up the lake, Matoa and Captain Hugh McLeod had to ride out the storm without a safe harbor. Matoa would be found stranded on the Port Austin reef when the winds subsided. It was noon on Monday before the winds let up and not until 11:00 p.m. that night before Captain Light determined it to be safe to continue his journey.</p><br>
<h3>Modern history</h3><br>
<p>On October 26, 2010, the Karegnondi Water Authority was formed to build and manage a pipeline from the lake to Flint, Michigan.</p><br>
<h2>Shipwrecks</h2><br>
<p>More than a thousand wrecks have been recorded in Lake Huron. These purportedly include the first European vessel to sail the Great Lakes, Le Griffon, built in 1679 on the eastern shore of Lake Erie, near Buffalo, New York. Robert Cavalier, Sieur de la Salle navigated across Lake Erie, up the Detroit River, Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair River out into Lake Huron. Passing the Straits of Mackinac, La Salle and Le Griffon made landfall on Washington Island, off the tip of the Door Peninsula on the Wisconsin side of Lake Michigan. Here, La Salle filled Le Griffon with pelts and in late November 1679 sent Le Griffon back to the site of modern-day Buffalo, never to be seen again.</p><br>
<p>Two wrecks have been identified as Le Griffon, although neither has gained final verification as the actual wreck. Blown by a fierce storm after leaving, Le Griffon ran aground before the storm. The people of Manitoulin Island say that the wreck in Mississagi Straits at the western tip of the island is that of Le Griffon. Meanwhile, others near Tobermory, say that the wreck on Russell Island, 150 mi farther east in Georgian Bay is that of Le Griffon.</p><br>
<h3>Thunder Bay</h3><br>
<p>The 448 square miles Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary and Underwater Preserve is home to 116 historically significant shipwrecks. It is the 13th National Marine Sanctuary designated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, established in 2000. Glass-bottom boat tours depart from Alpena, Michigan, providing tourists with views of some of the famous shipwrecks in Thunder Bay.</p><br>
<h3>Saginaw Bay</h3><br>
<p>Within the waters of Saginaw Bay are 185 of 1,000+ wrecks. Matoa, a propeller freighter weighing 2,311 gross tons, was built in Cleveland in 1890, and was wrecked in 1913 on Port Austin Reef.</p><br>
<h3>Georgian Bay, North Channel</h3><br>
<p>Georgian Bay, the largest bay on Lake Huron, contains 212 of the 1,000 sunken vessels in the lake.</p><br>
<p>Manola, a propeller freighter of 2,325 gross tons, was built in 1890 by the Globe Shipping Company of Cleveland, Ohio. It was operated by the Minnesota Steamship Company (Cleveland) from 1890 to 1901, and by the Pittsburgh Steamship Company from 1901 to 1918. On January 25, 1918, Manola was sold to the USA Shipping Board. It was sold again in 1920 to the Canada Steamship Lines, Ltd., and renamed Mapledawn. The vessel became stranded on November 20, 1924, on Christian Island in Georgian Bay. Headed for Port McNichol, Ontario, it was declared a total loss after two weeks. Salvagers were able to recover approximately 75,000 bushels of barley for delivery to Midland, Ontario.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Lake Huron has a lake retention time of 22 years.</p><br>
<p>Like all of the Great Lakes, the ecology of Lake Huron has undergone drastic changes in the last century. The lake originally supported a native deepwater fish community dominated by lake trout, which fed on a number of deepwater ciscos as well as sculpins and other native fishes. Several invasive species, including sea lamprey, alewife and rainbow smelt, became abundant in the lake by the 1930s. The major native top predator, lake trout, were virtually extirpated from the lake by 1950 due to a combination of overfishing and the effects of sea lamprey. Several species of deepwater ciscos were also extirpated from the lake by the 1960s; the only remaining native deepwater cisco is the bloater. Nonnative Pacific salmon have been stocked in the lake since the 1960s, and lake trout have also been stocked in an attempt to rehabilitate the species, although little natural reproduction of stocked trout has been observed.</p><br>
<p>Lake Huron has suffered recently due the introduction of a variety of new invasive species, including zebra and quagga mussels, the spiny water flea, and round gobies. The deepwater demersal fish community of the lake was in a state of collapse by 2006, and a number of drastic changes have been observed in the zooplankton community of the lake. Chinook salmon catches have also been greatly reduced in recent years, and lake whitefish have become less abundant and are in poor condition. These recent changes may be attributable to the new exotic species.</p><br>
<p>Formentera is the smaller and more southerly island of the Pityusic Islands group , which belongs to the Balearic Islands autonomous community .</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island&#39;s name is usually said to derive from the Latin word frumentarium, meaning "granary". The island was occupied in prehistoric times, going back to 2,000-1,600 BCE. Archaeological sites from that period remain in</p><br>
<p>Ca na Costa,</p><br>
<p>Cap de Barbaria (multiple sites)</p><br>
<p>and Cova des Fum.</p><br>
<p>The island had been occupied by the Carthaginians before passing to the ancient Romans. In succeeding centuries, it passed to the Visigoths, the Byzantines, the Vandals, and the Arabs. In 1109 it was the target of a devastating attack by the Norwegian king Sigurd I at the head of the "Norwegian Crusade". The island was conquered by the Catalans, added to the Crown of Aragon and later became part of the medieval Kingdom of Majorca.</p><br>
<p>The island (along with its surrounding islets) became a separate insular council (with the same territory as the municipality of the same name) after 1977. Before that, it was administered in the former insular council of Ibiza and Formentera (covering the whole group of the Pityusic Islands), but in a separate comarca (which already covered the current municipality of Formentera). This reform allowed Ibiza to unify its comarca (of five municipalities) with its new insular council (no longer administrating Formentera).</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The main island of Formentera is 19 km long and is located about 6 km south of Ibiza in the Mediterranean Sea. More specifically Formentera is part of the delimitation of the Balearic Sea which is a northwestern element of the Mediterranean Sea. Its major villages are Sant Francesc Xavier, Sant Ferran de ses Roques, El Pilar de la Mola and La Savina.</p><br>
<p>Formentera comprises one municipality, also called Formentera, and has a population of 9,962 (as at 1 January 2010). Its land area is 83.24 km&sup2;. It is subdivided into several civil parishes (parròquies), themselves subdivided into vendas (véndes in Catalan).</p><br>
<p>North of Formentera is the island of Espalmador (Illa de s&#39;Empalmador in Catalan), which is the second largest island of the municipality, and is itself surrounded by a few minor islets. Espalmador is a tombolo, separated from the main island of Formentera by a shallow sandbar, and during low tide, it is possible for one to wade between the two islands. This area is a popular stopping point for those in yachts heading between Ibiza and Formentera.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<p>Since the 1960s, Formentera has been a popular destination for hippies. Formentera is renowned across Europe for many pristine white beaches and the fact that nude sunbathing is allowed on most of its beaches. The Canadian writer Patrick Roscoe was born on Formentera. Meanwhile, Joni Mitchell wrote her 1971 album Blue on the island while Bob Dylan once lived in the Cap de Barbaria lighthouse on the island. Author Matt Haig also writes about visiting the island often in his twenties in Reasons to Stay Alive. The opening track of the King Crimson album Islands, "Formentera Lady", is named after the island.</p><br>
<p>Although paved roads allow access to all parts of the island and cars are easily hired in the port, many people choose to rent mopeds or even bicycles due to the flat nature of most of the island and the availability of dedicated cycle tracks in many locations.</p><br>
<p>The island also has four Martello towers.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>The island was formerly reachable only by boat from Ibiza, making it the quieter of the two islands, but in recent years regular passenger service from the Spanish mainland has increased tourism.</p><br>
<p>Ferry tickets from Ibiza are available in advance, as are transfers from Ibiza airport or port directly to accommodation in Formentera.</p><br>
<p>Ferries to Formentera operate from their own terminal in Ibiza port, with departures every half hour in high season on large (200+ passenger) fast catamarans. The journey takes approximately 30 minutes with 10 minutes each leaving Ibiza, crossing the sea, and arriving in Formentera past the isthmus to Espalmador.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>A local Ibizan (eivissenc) variant of the Balearic dialect of the Catalan language is spoken in Formentera. While the official languages are Catalan and Spanish, other major languages like English, Italian, German, French and Dutch can also be heard extensively in the summer due to mass tourism.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>From 1 September to 7 September, Formentera hosted the 2007 Techno 293 OD World Championships in windsurfing for juniors under 15 and youths under 17.</p><br>
<p>Half Dome is a granite dome at the eastern end of Yosemite Valley in Yosemite National Park, California. It is a well-known rock formation in the park, named for its distinct shape. One side is a sheer face while the other three sides are smooth and round, making it appear like a dome cut in half. The granite crest rises more than 4,737 ft above the valley floor.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The impression from the valley floor that this is a round dome that has lost its northwest half is an illusion. From Washburn Point, Half Dome can be seen as a thin ridge of rock, an arête, that is oriented northeast-southwest, with its southeast side almost as steep as its northwest side except for the very top. Although the trend of this ridge, as well as that of Tenaya Canyon, is probably controlled by master joints, 80 percent of the northwest "half" of the original dome may well still be there.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>As late as the 1870s, Half Dome was described as "perfectly inaccessible" by Josiah Whitney of the California Geological Survey. The summit was finally conquered by George G. Anderson in October 1875, via a route constructed by drilling and placing iron eyebolts into the smooth granite.</p><br>
<p>Today, Half Dome may now be ascended in several different ways. Thousands of hikers reach the top each year by following an 8.5 mi trail from the valley floor. After a rigorous 2 mi approach, including several hundred feet of granite stairs, the final pitch up the peak&#39;s steep but somewhat rounded east face is ascended with the aid of a pair of post-mounted braided steel cables originally constructed close to the Anderson route in 1919.</p><br>
<p>Alternatively, over a dozen rock climbing routes lead from the valley up Half Domes vertical northwest face. The first technical ascent was in 1957 via a route pioneered by Royal Robbins, Mike Sherrick, and Jerry Gallwas, today known as the Regular Northwest Face. Their five-day epic was the first Grade VI climb in the United States. Their route has now been free soloed several times in a few hours time. Other technical routes ascend the south face and the west shoulder.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking the Cable Route</h2><br>
<p>The Half Dome Cable Route hike runs from the valley floor to the top of the dome in 8.2 mi (via the Mist Trail), with 4,800 ft of elevation gain. The length and difficulty of the trail used to keep it less crowded than other park trails, but in recent years the trail traffic has grown to as many as 800 people a day. The hike can be done from the valley floor in a single long day, but many people break it up by camping overnight in Little Yosemite Valley. The trail climbs past Vernal and Nevada Falls, then continues into Little Yosemite Valley, then north to the base of the northeast ridge of Half Dome itself.</p><br>
<p>The final 400 ft ascent is steeply up the rock between two steel cables used as handholds. The cables are fixed with bolts in the rock and raised onto a series of metal poles in late May (the poles do not anchor the cables). The cables are taken down from the poles for the winter in early October, but they are still fixed to the rock surface and can be used. The National Park Service recommends against climbing the route when the cables are down and when the surface of the rock is wet and slippery. The Cable Route is rated class 3, while the same face away from the cables is rated class 5.</p><br>
<p>The Cable Route can be crowded. In past years, as many as 1,000 hikers per day have sometimes climbed the dome on a summer weekend, and about 50,000 hikers climb it every year.</p><br>
<p>Since 2011, all hikers who intend to ascend the Cable Route must now obtain permits before entering the park. Permits are checked by a ranger on the trail, and no hikers without permits are allowed to hike beyond the base of the sub-dome or to the bottom of the cables. Hikers caught bypassing the rangers to visit either the sub-dome or main dome without a permit face fines of up to $5,000 and/or 6 months in jail.</p><br>
<p>Backpackers with an appropriate wilderness permit can receive a Half Dome permit when they pick up their wilderness permit with no additional reservation required. Rock climbers who reach the top of Half Dome without entering the subdome area can descend on the Half Dome Trail without a permit.</p><br>
<p>The top of Half Dome is a large, flat area where climbers can relax and enjoy their accomplishment. The summit offers views of the surrounding areas, including Little Yosemite Valley and the Valley Floor. A notable location to one side of Half Dome is the "Diving Board", where Ansel Adams took his photograph "Monolith, The Face of Half Dome" on April 10, 1927. Often confused with "the Visor," a small overhanging ledge at the summit, the Diving Board is on the shoulder of Half Dome.</p><br>
<p>From 1919 when the cables were erected through 2011, there have been six fatal falls from the cables. The latest fatality occurred on July 31, 2011.</p><br>
<p>Lightning strikes can be a risk while on or near the summit. On July 27, 1985, five hikers were struck by lightning, resulting in two fatalities.</p><br>
<p>The Cable Route was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2012.</p><br>
<h2>Notable ascents</h2><br>
<p>1875 George G. Anderson via drilled spikes on the east slope.</p><br>
<p>1946 Salathe Route on southwest face (IV 5.7 A3), FA by John Salathe and Anton Nelson</p><br>
<p>1957 Northwest Face (VI 5.8 A3), FA by Royal Robbins, Jerry Gallwas and Mike Sherrick. First Grade VI in North America.</p><br>
<p>1963 Direct Northwest Face (VI 5.9 A5), FA by Royal Robbins and Dick McCracken</p><br>
<p>1969 Tis-sa-ack (VI 5.9 A4), FA by Royal Robbins and Don Peterson.</p><br>
<p>1973 First "clean ascent" of NW face by Dennis Hennek, Doug Robinson, and Galen Rowell, Hennek is on the cover of June 1974 National Geographic leading a nut protected traverse see Super Topo too</p><br>
<p>1987 The Big Chill (VI 5.9 A4), FA by Jim Bridwell, Peter Mayfield, Sean Plunkett and Steve Bosque</p><br>
<p>1989 Shadows (VI 5.10 A5), FA by Jim Bridwell, Charles Row, Cito Kirkpatrick, William Westbay</p><br>
<p>1997 Blue Shift (VI 5.11c a4) FA by Jay Smith and Karl McConachie.</p><br>
<h2>Notable free climbs</h2><br>
<p>1964 Salathe Route (5.10), FFA by Frank Sacherer, Bob Kamps & Andy Lichtman</p><br>
<p>1965 Snake Dike (5.7), FFA by Eric Beck, Jim Bridwell and Chris Fredericks</p><br>
<p>1976 Regular Northwest Face, Higbee variation (VI 5.12) by Art Higbee and Jim Erickson.</p><br>
<p>1988 Southern Belle (V 5.12d) by Dave Schultz and Scott Cosgrove</p><br>
<p>2008 Regular Northwest Face, Higbee variation (VI 5.12a, 23 pitches), free solo climb by Alex Honnold.</p><br>
<h2>In culture</h2><br>
<p>Half Dome was originally called "Tis-sa-ack", meaning Cleft Rock in the language of the local Ahwahnechee people. Tis-sa-ack is also the name of the fourth route on the formation, ascended by Royal Robbins and Don Peterson over eight days in October 1969. Tis-sa-ack is the name of a mother from a native legend. The face seen in Half Dome is supposed to be hers. Tis-sa-ack is the name of a Mono Lake Paiute Indian girl in the Yosemite Native American legend. John Muir referred to the peak as "Tissiack".</p><br>
<p>Others say Ahwahneechee Native Americans named Half Dome “Face of a Young Woman Stained with Tears” ("Tis-se’-yak") because of the colonies of brown-black lichens that form dark vertical drip-like stripes along drainage tracks in the rock faces.</p><br>
<p>In 1988, Half Dome was featured on a 25 cent United States postage stamp. An image of Half Dome, along with John Muir and the California condor, appears on the California State Quarter, released in January 2005.</p><br>
<p>Starting October 2010, an image of Half Dome is included on the new revised California drivers license in the top right-hand corner.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, Apple revealed their new version of their operating system, Yosemite, and Half Dome was the default wallpaper on the new IOS.</p><br>
<p>Half Dome is also an element or inspiration of various company and organization logos, including that of The North Face, Sierra Designs, & Mountain Khakis outdoor product companies, the Sierra Club environmental group and the Sierra Entertainment game studio.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, American music artist Toro y Moi, real name Chazwick Bundick, released a song called Half Dome from his album What For?. The song was inspired by a hike he took up the dome. On the hike he happened to meet photographer R. Adam Prieto who was a fan of Bundicks music. Prieto agreed to create the music video for Half Dome&#39;. The video features time-lapse videos of the dome and surrounding area.</p><br>
<p>Brenner Pass  is a mountain pass through the Alps which forms the border between Italy and Austria. It is one of the principal passes of the Eastern Alpine range and has the lowest altitude among Alpine passes of the area.</p><br>
<p>Dairy cattle graze in alpine pastures throughout the summer in valleys beneath the pass and on the mountains above it. At lower altitudes, farmers log pine trees, plant crops and harvest hay for winter fodder. Many of the high pastures are at an altitude of over 1,500 m; a small number of them stands high in the mountains at around 2,000 m.</p><br>
<p>The central section of Brenner Pass covers a four-lane motorway and railway tracks connecting Bozen/Bolzano in the south and Innsbruck to the north. The village of Brenner consists of an outlet shopping centre (supermarkets and stores), fruit stores, restaurants, cafés, hotels and a gas station. It has a population of 400 to 600.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Prenner was originally the name of a nearby farm which derived from its former owner. The farm of a certain Prennerius is mentioned in documents in 1288, a certain Chunradus Prenner de Mittenwalde is mentioned in 1299. The name Prenner is traced back to the German word for somebody who clears woodland. A name for the pass itself appears for the first time in 1328 as ob dem Prenner (German for above the Prenner).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Roman Empire</h3><br>
<p>The Romans regularised the mountain pass at Brenner, which had already been under frequent use during the prehistoric eras since the most recent Ice Age. Brenner Pass, however, was not the first trans-Alpine Roman road to become regularised under the Roman Empire.</p><br>
<p>The first Roman road to cross the Alpine range, Via Claudia Augusta, connected Verona in northern Italy with Augusta Vindelicorum (modern-day Augsburg) in the Roman province of Raetia. Via Augusta was completed in 46–47 AD; the route took its course along the Adige valley to the neighbouring Reschen Pass (west of Brenner Pass at above 2,000 m), then descended into the Inn valley before rising to Fern Pass towards Augsburg.</p><br>
<p>The Roman road that physically crossed over Brenner Pass did not exist until the 2nd century AD. It took the "eastern" route through the Puster Valley and descended into Veldidena (modern-day Wilten), where it crossed the Inn and into Zirl and arrived at Augsburg via Garmish-Partenkirchen.</p><br>
<p>The Alamanni (Germanic tribe) crossed the Brenner Pass southward into modern-day Italy in 268 AD, but they were stopped in November of that year at the Battle of Lake Benacus. The Romans kept control over the mountain pass until their end of the empire, in the 5th century.</p><br>
<h3>Holy Roman Empire</h3><br>
<p>During the High Middle Ages, Brenner Pass was a part of the important Via Imperii, an imperial road linking the Kingdom of Germany north of the Alps with the Italian March of Verona. Since the 12th century, Brenner Pass was controlled by the Counts of Tyrol within the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa made frequent uses of the Brenner Pass to cross the Alps during his imperial expeditions of Italy. The 12th-century Brenner Pass was a trackway for mule trains and carts.</p><br>
<p>Modernisation of Brenner Pass started in 1777, when a carriage road was laid out at the behest of Empress Maria Theresa.</p><br>
<h3>Austrian Empire</h3><br>
<p>Modernisation further took place under the Austrian Empire and the Brenner Railway, which was completed in stages from 1853 to 1867. It became the first trans-Alpine railway without a major tunnel and at high altitude (crossing Brenner Pass at 1,371 m). Completion of the railway has enabled the Austrians to move their troops more efficiently; the Austrians had hoped to secure their territories of Venetia and Lombardy (south of the Alps), but they were lost to Italy following the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859 and Austro-Prussian War in 1866.</p><br>
<h3>Recent history</h3><br>
<p>At the end of World War I in 1918, the control of Brenner Pass became shared between Italy and Austria under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919). The Treaty of London (1915) secretly awarded Italy the territories south of Brenner Pass for supporting the Entente Powers. Welschtirol/Trentino, along with the southern part of County of Tyrol (now South Tyrol), was transferred to Italy, and Italian troops occupied Tyrol and arrived at Brenner Pass in 1919 to 20.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, German Führer Adolf Hitler and Italian Duce Benito Mussolini met at Brenner Pass to celebrate their Pact of Steel on 18 March 1940. Brenner Pass was part of the ratlines that were used by some fleeing Nazis after the German surrender in 1945.</p><br>
<h2>Motorway</h2><br>
<p>The motorway E45 (European designation; in Italy A22, in Austria A13), Brenner Autobahn/Autostrada del Brennero, begins in Innsbruck, runs through Brenner Pass, Bozen/Bolzano, Verona and finishes outside Modena. It is one of the most important routes of north-south connections in Europe.</p><br>
<p>After the signing of the Schengen Agreement in 1992 and Austria&#39;s subsequent entry into the European Union in 1995, customs and immigration posts at Brenner Pass were removed in 1997. However, Austria reinstituted border checks in 2015 as a response to the European migrant crisis. In April 2016, Austria announced it would build a 370-meter long fence at the Pass but clarify that "it would be used only to "channel" people and was not a barrier."</p><br>
<p>The Europabrücke (Europe Bridge), located roughly halfway between Innsbruck and the Brenner Pass, is a large concrete bridge carrying the six-lane Brenner Autobahn over the valley of Sill River (Wipptal). At a height of 180 m and span of 820 m, the bridge was celebrated as a masterpiece of engineering upon its completion in 1963. It is a site where bungee-jumping from the bridge has become a popular tourist attraction.</p><br>
<p>The ever-increasing freight and leisure traffic, however, has been causing long traffic jams at busy times even without border enforcements. The Brenner Pass is the only major mountain pass within the area; other nearby alternatives are footpaths across higher mountains at an altitude of above 2,000 m. As a result, air and noise pollution have generated heavy debate in regional and European politics., about 1.8 million trucks crossed the Europa Bridge per year.</p><br>
<h2>Railway</h2><br>
<p>In order to ease the road traffic, there are plans to upgrade the Brenner Railway from Verona to Innsbruck with a series of tunnels, including the Brenner Base Tunnel underneath Brenner. While the official groundbreaking of the tunnel had taken place in 2006 (with survey tunnels drilled in the same year), substantial work did not begin until 2011. Funding issues have delayed the tunnel&#39;s scheduled date of completion from 2022 to 31 December 2025.</p><br>
<p>The Great Salt Lake, located in the northern part of the USA state of Utah, is the largest salt water lake in the Western Hemisphere, and the eighth-largest terminal lake in the world. In an average year the lake covers an area of around 1,700 square miles, but the lake&#39;s size fluctuates substantially due to its shallowness. For instance, in 1963 it reached its lowest recorded size at 950 square miles , but in 1988 the surface area was at the historic high of 3,300 square miles. In terms of surface area, it is the largest lake in the United States that is not part of the Great Lakes region.</p><br>
<p>The lake is the largest remnant of Lake Bonneville, a prehistoric pluvial lake that once covered much of western Utah. The three major tributaries to the lake, the Jordan, Weber, and Bear rivers together deposit around 1.1 million tons of minerals in the lake each year. As it is endorheic (has no outlet besides evaporation), it has very high salinity (far saltier than seawater) and its mineral content is steadily increasing. Due to the high density resulting from its mineral content, swimming in the Great Salt Lake is similar to floating. Its shallow, warm waters cause frequent, sometimes heavy lake-effect snows from late fall through spring.</p><br>
<p>Although it has been called "Americas Dead Sea", the lake provides habitat for millions of native birds, brine shrimp, shorebirds, and waterfowl, including the largest staging population of Wilsons phalarope in the world.</p><br>
<h2>Origin</h2><br>
<p>The Great Salt Lake is a remnant of a much larger prehistoric lake called Lake Bonneville. At its greatest extent, Lake Bonneville spanned 22,400 square miles, nearly as large as present-day Lake Michigan, and roughly ten times the area of the Great Salt Lake today. Bonneville reached 923 ft at its deepest point, and covered much of present-day Utah and small portions of Idaho and Nevada during the ice ages of the Pleistocene Epoch.</p><br>
<p>Lake Bonneville existed until about 16,800 years ago, when a large portion of the lake was released through the Red Rock Pass in Idaho. With the warming climate, the remaining lake began to dry, leaving the Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, Sevier Lake, and Rush Lake behind.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Shoshone, Ute, and Paiute have lived near the Great Salt Lake for thousands of years. At the time of Salt Lake Citys founding, the valley was within the territory of the Northwestern Shoshone; however, occupation was seasonal, near streams emptying from Canyons into the Salt Lake Valley. One of the local Shoshone tribes, the Western Goshute tribe, referred to the lake as Pia-pa, meaning "big water", or Ti&#39;tsa-pa, meaning "bad water".</p><br>
<p>The Great Salt Lake entered written European history through the records of Silvestre Vélez de Escalante, who learned of its existence from the Timpanogos Utes in 1776. No European name was given to it at the time, and it was not shown on the map by Bernardo Miera y Pacheco, the cartographer for the expedition. In 1824, it was observed, apparently independently, by Jim Bridger and Etienne Provost. Shortly thereafter other trappers saw it and walked around it.</p><br>
<p>Most of the trappers, however, were illiterate and did not record their discoveries. As oral reports of their findings made their way to those who did make records, some errors were made. Escalante had been on the shores of Utah Lake, which he named Laguna Timpanogos. It was the larger of the two lakes that appeared on Miera&#39;s map. Other cartographers followed his lead and charted Lake Timpanogos as the largest (or larger) lake in the region. As people came to know of the Great Salt Lake, they interpreted the maps to think that "Timpanogos" referred to the Great Salt Lake. On some maps the two names were used synonymously. In time "Timpanogos" was dropped from the maps and its original association with Utah Lake was forgotten.</p><br>
<p>In 1843, John C. Fremont led the first scientific expedition to the lake, but with winter coming on, he did not take the time to survey the entire lake. That happened in 1850 under the leadership of Howard Stansbury (Stansbury discovered and named the Stansbury mountain range and Stansbury island). John Fremonts overly glowing reports of the area were published shortly after his expedition. Stansbury also published a formal report of his survey work which became very popular. His report of the area included a discussion of Mormon religious practices based on Stansburys interaction with the Mormon community in Great Salt Lake City, which had been established three years earlier in 1847.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in November 1895, artist and author Alfred Lambourne spent a year living on the remote Gunnison Island, where he wrote a book of musing and poetry, Our Inland Sea. From November 1895 to March 1896, he was alone. In March, a few guano sifters arrived to harvest and sell the guano of the nesting birds as fertilizer. Lambourne included musings about these guano sifters in his work. Lambourne left the island early in the winter of 1896 along with the first group of guano sifters.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Great Salt Lake lends its name to Salt Lake City, originally named "Great Salt Lake City" by the president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) Brigham Young, who led a group of Mormon pioneers to the Salt Lake Valley southeast of the lake on July 24, 1847.</p><br>
<p>The lake lies in parts of five counties: Box Elder, Davis, Tooele, Weber, and Salt Lake. Salt Lake City and its suburbs are located to the southeast and east of the lake, between the lake and the Wasatch Mountains, but land around the north and west shores are almost uninhabited. The Bonneville Salt Flats are to the west, and the Oquirrh and Stansbury Mountains rise to the south.</p><br>
<p>The Great Salt Lake is fed by three major rivers and several minor streams. The three major rivers are each fed directly or indirectly from the Uinta Mountain range in northeastern Utah. The Bear River starts on the north slope of the Uintas and flows north past Bear Lake, into which some of Bear River&#39;s waters have been diverted via a man-made canal into the lake, but later empty back into the river by means of the Bear Lake Outlet. The river then turns south in southern Idaho and eventually flows into the northeast arm of the Great Salt Lake. The Weber River also starts on the north slope of the Uinta Mountains and flows into the east edge of the lake. The Jordan River does not receive its water directly from the Uintas, rather it flows from freshwater Utah Lake, which itself is fed primarily by the Provo River; the Provo River does originate in the Uintas, a few miles from the Weber and Bear. The Jordan flows from the north part of Utah Lake into the southeast corner of the Great Salt Lake.</p><br>
<p>Due to its shallowness, the water level can fall dramatically in dry years and rise during high precipitation years, hence reflecting prolonged drought and wet periods. The lake level change is strongly modulated by the Pacific Ocean through atmospheric circulations that fluctuate at low frequency. By capturing these climate oscillations while using tree-ring reconstruction of lake level, the lake level fluctuation could be predicted onward for 5–8 years. The Utah Climate Center provides prediction of the Great Salt Lake&#39;s annual lake level. This forecast uses central tropical Pacific Ocean temperature, watershed precipitation, tree-ring data of 750+ years, and the lake level itself.</p><br>
<p>A railroad line – the Lucin Cutoff – runs across the lake, crossing the southern end of Promontory Peninsula. The mostly solid causeway supporting the railway divides the lake into three portions: the northeast arm, northwest arm, and southern. This causeway obstructs the normal mixing of the waters of the lake because there are only three 100 ft breaches. Because no rivers, except a few minor streams, flow directly into the northwest arm, Gunnison Bay, it is now substantially saltier than the rest of the lake. This saltier environment promotes different types of algae than those growing in the southern part of the lake, leading to a marked color difference on the two sides of the causeway. On December 1, 2016, the causeway was open under a newly constructed 180 ft bridge that allowed water to flow from the southern arm of the lake into northwest arm. At the time of opening of causeway the northwest arm was nearly three feet lower than the southern arm. As of April 29, 2017, the levels of both arms of the lake have risen due to spring runoff, and the northwestern arm is within one foot of the southern arm.</p><br>
<h3>Islands</h3><br>
<p>Categorically stating the number of islands is difficult, as the method used to determine what is an island is not necessarily the same in each source. Since the water level of the lake can vary greatly between years, what may be considered an island in a high water year may be considered a peninsula in another, or an island in a low water year may be covered during another year. According to the USA Department of the Interior and the USA Geological Survey, "there are eight named islands in the lake that have never been totally submerged during historic time. All have been connected to the mainland by exposed shoals during periods of low water." In addition to these eight islands, the lake also contains a number of rocks, reefs, or shoals that become fully or partially submerged at high water levels.</p><br>
<p>The Utah Geological Survey, on the other hand, states "the lake contains 11 recognized islands, although this number varies depending on the level of the lake. Seven islands are in the southern portion of the lake and four in the northwestern portion."</p><br>
<p>The size and whether they are counted as islands during any particular year depends mostly on the level of the lake. From largest to smallest, they are Antelope Island, Stansbury Island, Fremont Island, Carrington Island, Dolphin Island, Cub Island, and Badger Island, and various rocks, reefs, or shoals with names like Strongs Knob, Gunnison Island, Goose, Browns, Hat (Bird), Egg Island, Black Rock, and White Rock. Dolphin Island, Gunnison Island, Cub Island, and Strongs Knob are in the northwestern arm. The rest are in the southern portion of the Great Salt Lake.</p><br>
<p>Black Rock, Antelope Island, White Rock, Egg Island, Fremont Island, and the Promontory mountain range are each extensions of the Oquirrh Mountain Range, which dips beneath the lake at its southeastern shore. Stansbury, Carrington, and Hat Islands are extensions of the Stansbury mountain range, and Strongs Knob is an extension of the Lakeside Mountains which run along the lake&#39;s western shore. The lake is deepest in the area between these island chains, measured by Howard Stansbury in 1850 at about 35 feet (10.7 meters) deep, and an average depth of 13 feet (four meters). When the water levels are low, Antelope Island becomes connected to the shore as a peninsula, as do Goose Islands, Browns Island, and some of the other islands. Stansbury Island and Strongs Knob remain peninsulas unless the water level rises well-above the average.</p><br>
<h3>Lake effect precipitation</h3><br>
<p>Due to the warm waters of the Great Salt Lake, lake effect snowfalls are frequent phenomena of the surrounding area. Cold north, northwest, or west winds generally blow across the lake following the passage of a cold front, and the temperature difference between the warm lake and the cool air can form clouds that lead to precipitation downwind of the lake. It is typically heaviest from eastern Tooele County east and north into central Davis County. It can deposit excessive snowfall amounts, generally with a narrow band of snow highly dependent on the direction the wind is blowing.</p><br>
<p>The lake effect snowfalls are more likely to occur in late fall, early winter, and during spring due to the higher temperature differences between the lake and the air above it. During summer, the temperature differences can cause thunderstorms to form over the lake and drift eastward along the northern Wasatch Front. Some rainstorms may also be partially attributed to the lake effect in fall and spring. It is estimated that approximately six to eight lake effect snowstorms occur in a year, and that 10% of the average precipitation of Salt Lake City can be attributed to the lake effect.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<p>Because of its high salt concentration, the lake water is unusually dense, and most people can float more easily than in other bodies of water, particularly in Gunnison Bay, the saltier north arm of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Water levels have been recorded since 1875, averaging about 4,200 feet (1,280 m) above sea level. Since the Great Salt Lake is a shallow lake with gently sloping shores around all edges except on the south side, small variations in the water level greatly affect the extent of the shoreline. The water level can rise dramatically in wet years and fall during dry years. The water level is also affected by the amount of water flow diverted for agricultural and urban uses. The Jordan and Weber rivers, in particular, are diverted for other uses. In the 1880s Grove Karl Gilbert predicted that the lake – then in the middle of many years of recession – would virtually disappear except for a small remnant between the islands.</p><br>
<p>A 2014 study used tree rings collected in the watershed of the Great Salt Lake to create a 576-year record of lake level reconstruction. The lake level change is strongly modulated by Pacific Ocean coupled ocean/atmospheric oscillations at low frequency, and therefore reflects the decadal-scale wet/dry cycles that characterize the region. By capturing these climate oscillations as well as utilizing the tree-ring reconstruction of lake level change, researchers were able to predict the lake level fluctuation onward for as long as 5–8 years.</p><br>
<p>The Great Salt Lake differs in elevation between the south and north parts. The causeway for the Lucin Cutoff divides the lake into two parts. The water-surface elevation of the south part of the lake is usually 0.5 to 2 ft higher than that of the north part because most of the inflow to the lake occurs from the south.</p><br>
<h3>Salinity</h3><br>
<p>Most of the salts dissolved in the lake and deposited in the desert flats around it reflect the concentration of solutes by evaporation; Lake Bonneville itself was fresh enough to support populations of fish. More salt is added yearly via rivers and streams, though the amount is much less than the relict salt from Bonneville.</p><br>
<p>The salinity of the lakes main basin, Gilbert Bay, is highly variable and depends on the lakes level; it ranges from 5 to 27% (50 to 270 parts per thousand). For comparison, the average salinity of the world ocean is 3.5% (35 parts per thousand) and 33.7% in the Dead Sea. The ionic composition is similar to seawater, much more so than the Dead Seas water; compared to the ocean, Great Salt Lakes waters are slightly enriched in potassium and depleted in calcium.</p><br>
<h3>1930s Fresh Water Project</h3><br>
<p>In the early 1930s there was a project to dam off a third of the lake with dikes on the east side north of Salt Lake City to make a fresh water reservoir for drinking and irrigation. The project was abandoned before it got beyond the planning stage.</p><br>
<h3>Willard Bay Reservoir</h3><br>
<p>Willard Bay, also known as Willard Bay Reservoir or Arthur V. Watkins Reservoir is a fresh water reservoir, completed in 1964, which separated, drained, and subsequently filled with fresh water from the Weber River, a portion of the Great Salt Lake&#39;s northeastern arm.</p><br>
<h3>West Desert Pumping Project</h3><br>
<p>Record high water levels in the 1980s caused a large amount of property damage for owners on the eastern side of the Great Salt Lake, and the water started to erode the base of Interstate 80. In response, the State of Utah built the West Desert Pumping Project on the western side of the lake. This project consists of a pumping station at Hogup Ridge, containing three pumps with a combined capacity of moving 1,500,000 USgal/min; an inlet canal; and an outlet canal. Also, there are 25 mi of dikes and a 10 mi access road between the town of Lakeside and the pumping station.</p><br>
<p>This pumping project was designed to increase the surface area of the Great Salt Lake, and thus increase the rate of water evaporation. The pumps drove some of the water of the Great Salt Lake into the 320,000-acre (1300-square kilometer) Newfoundland Evaporation Basin in the desert west of the lake. A weir in the dike at the southern end of the Newfoundland Mountains regulated the level of water in the basin, and it sometimes returned salty water from the evaporation basin into the main body of the Great Salt Lake.</p><br>
<p>At the end of their first year of operation, the pumps had removed about 500,000 acre.ft of water from the Great Salt Lake. The project was shut down in June 1989 since the level of the lake had dropped by nearly six feet (1.8 meters) since reaching its peak levels during June 1986 and March 1987. The Utah Division of Water Resources credits the project with "over one-third of that decline."</p><br>
<p>Although the pumps are no longer in use, they have been kept in place in case the level of the Great Salt Lake ever rises that high again.</p><br>
<h2>Ecosystem</h2><br>
<p>The high salinity in parts of the lake makes them uninhabitable for all but a few species, including brine shrimp, brine flies, and several forms of algae. The brine flies have an estimated population of over one hundred billion and serve as the main source of food for many of the birds which migrate to the lake. However, the fresh- and salt-water wetlands along the eastern and northern edges of the Great Salt Lake provide critical habitat for millions of migratory shorebirds and waterfowl in western North America. These marshes account for approximately 75% of the wetlands in Utah. Some of the birds that depend on these marshes include: Wilson&#39;s phalarope, red-necked phalarope, American avocet, black-necked stilt, marbled godwit, snowy plover, western sandpiper, long-billed dowitcher, tundra swan, American white pelican, white-faced ibis, California gull, eared grebe, peregrine falcon, bald eagle, plus large populations of various ducks and geese.</p><br>
<p>There are twenty-seven private duck clubs, seven state waterfowl management areas, and a large federal bird refuge on the Great Salt Lake&#39;s shores. Wetland/wildlife management areas include the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge; Gillmor Sanctuary; Great Salt Lake Shorelands Preserve; Salt Creek, Public Shooting Grounds, Harold Crane, Locomotive Springs, Ogden Bay, Timpie Springs, and Farmington Bay Waterfowl Management Areas.</p><br>
<p>Several islands in the lake provide critical nesting areas for various birds. Access to Hat, Gunnison, and Cub islands is strictly limited by the State of Utah in an effort to protect nesting colonies of American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos). The islands within the Great Salt Lake also provide habitat for lizard and mammalian wildlife and a variety of plant species. Some species may have been extirpated from the islands. For example, a number of explorers who visited the area in the mid-1800s (e.g. Emmanuel Domenech, Howard Stansbury, Jules Rémy) noted an abundance of yellow-flowered "onions" on several of the islands, which they identified as Calochortus luteus. This species today occurs only in California, however, at that time the name C. luteus was applied to plants that later were named C. nuttallii A yellow-flowered Calochortus was first named as a variety of C. nuttallii but was later separated into a new species C. aureus. This species occurs in Utah today, though apparently no longer on the islands of the Great Salt Lake.</p><br>
<p>Because of the Great Salt Lakes high salinity, it has few fish, but they do occur in Bear River Bay and Farmington Bay when spring runoff brings fresh water into the lake. A few aquatic animals live in the lakes main basin, including centimeter-long brine shrimp (Artemia franciscana). Their tiny, hard-walled eggs or cysts (diameter about 200 micrometers) are harvested in quantity during the fall and early winter. They are fed to prawns in Asia, as well as protozoa, rotifers, bacteria and algae.</p><br>
<p>Salinity differences between the sections of the lake separated by the railroad causeway result in significantly different biota. A phytoplankton community dominated by green algae or cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) tint the water south of the causeway a greenish color. North of the causeway, the lake is dominated by Dunaliella salina, a species of algae which releases beta-carotene, and the bacteria-like haloarchaea, which together give the water an unusual reddish or purplish color,</p><br>
<p>Although brine shrimp can be found in the arm of the lake north of the causeway, studies conducted by the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources indicate that these are likely transient. Populations of brine shrimp are mostly restricted to the lake&#39;s south arm.</p><br>
<p>In the two bays that receive most of the lake&#39;s fresh water inflows, Bear River Bay and Farmington Bay, the diversity of organisms is much higher. Salinities in these bays can approach that of fresh water when the spring snow melt occurs, and this allows a variety of bacteria, algae and invertebrates to proliferate in the nutrient-rich water. The abundance of invertebrates such as gnat larvae (chironomids) and back swimmers (Trichocorixa) are fed upon extensively by the huge shorebird and waterfowl populations that utilize the lake. Fish in these bays are fed upon by diving terns and pelicans.</p><br>
<h3>Pink Floyd the flamingo</h3><br>
<p>A solitary Chilean flamingo, named Pink Floyd after the English rock band, wintered at the Great Salt Lake. He escaped from Salt Lake Citys Tracy Aviary in 1987 and lived in the wild, eating brine shrimp and socializing with gulls and swans. (Pink Floyd is often referred to as a "he", although the birds gender is not actually known.) A group of Utah residents suggested petitioning the state to release more flamingos in an effort to keep Floyd company and as a possible tourist attraction. Wildlife biologists resisted these efforts, saying that deliberate introduction of a non-native species would be ecologically unsound and might have detrimental consequences. Pink Floyd was last seen in Idaho (where he was known to migrate) in 2005. He has not been seen since then and is presumed not to have survived the winter of 2005–2006.</p><br>
<h3>Elevated mercury levels</h3><br>
<p>US Geological Survey and US Fish & Wildlife researchers, originally studying selenium levels in the lake, discovered some of the highest levels of methyl-mercury they had ever seen, at 25 nanograms per liter of water. For comparison, a fish consumption advisory was issued at the Florida Everglades after water there was found to contain 1 nanogram per liter. The extremely high methyl mercury concentrations have been only in the lake&#39;s anoxic deep brine layer (monimolimnion) below a depth of 20 ft, but concentrations are also moderately high up in the water column where there is oxygen to support brine shrimp and brine flies.</p><br>
<p>The finding of high mercury levels prompted further studies and a health advisory warning hunters not to eat common goldeneye or northern shoveler, two species of duck found in the lake. It has been stated that this does not pose a risk to other recreational users of the lake.</p><br>
<p>After later studies were conducted with a larger number of birds, the advisories were revised and another was added for cinnamon teal. Seven other species of duck were studied and found to have levels of mercury below EPA guidelines, thus being determined safe to eat.</p><br>
<p>A study in 2010 concluded that the main source of the mercury is likely worldwide industry, rather than local sources. As water levels rise and fall, mercury accumulation does as well. About 16 percent of the mercury comes in from rivers, and 84 percent comes from the atmosphere in a non-toxic, inorganic form. The non-toxic mercury is converted into toxic methyl mercury by bacteria which thrive in the more saline water of the North arm affected by the causeway.</p><br>
<h2>Commerce</h2><br>
<p>Great Salt Lake contributes an estimated $1.3 billion annually to Utah&#39;s economy, including $1.1 billion from industry (primarily mineral extraction), $136 million from recreation, and $57 million from the harvest of brine shrimp.</p><br>
<p>Solar evaporation ponds at the edges of the lake produce salts and brine (water with high salt quantity). Minerals extracted from the lake include: sodium chloride (common salt), used in water softeners, salt lick blocks for livestock, and to melt ice on local roadways (food-grade salt is not produced from the lake, as it would require further costly processing to ensure its purity); potassium sulfate, used as a commercial fertilizer; and magnesium-chloride brine, used in the production of magnesium metal, chlorine gas, and as a dust suppressant. US Magnesium operates a plant on the southwest shore of the lake, which produces 14 percent of the worldwide supply of magnesium, more than any other North American magnesium operation.</p><br>
<p>The harvest of brine shrimp cysts during fall and early winter has developed into a significant local industry, with the lake providing 35 to 45 percent of the worldwide supply of brine shrimp, Brine shrimp were first harvested during the 1950s and sold as commercial fish food. In the 1970s the focus changed to their eggs, known as cysts, which were sold primarily outside of the United States to be used as food for shrimp, prawns, and some fish. Today, these are mostly sold in East Asia and South America. The amount of cysts and the quality are affected by several factors, but salinity is most important. The cysts will hatch at 2 to 3% salinity, but the greatest productivity is at salinities above about 10%. If the salinity drops near 5 to 6%, the cysts will lose buoyancy and sink, making them more difficult to harvest.</p><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s north arm contains deposits of oil, but it is of poor quality and it is not economically feasible to extract and purify it. As of 1993, around 3,000 barrels of crude oil had been produced from shallow wells along the shore. The oil field at Rozel Point produced an estimated 10,000 barrels of oil from 30 to 50 wells, but has been inactive since the mid-1980s. Oil seeps in the area had been known since the late 19th century, and attempts at production began in 1904. Industrial debris from this field remained in place near Spiral Jetty until a cleanup effort by the Division of Oil, Gas and Mining and the Division of Forestry, Fire, and State Lands was completed in December 2005.</p><br>
<h3>Causeway</h3><br>
<p>The causeway running across the lake was built in the 1950s by the Morrison-Knudsen construction company for the Southern Pacific Railroad as a replacement to a previously built wooden trestle, and is now owned and operated by Union Pacific. About 15 trains cross the 20-mile (30 km) causeway each day. Previous to December 2, 2016, the causeway constrained the flow of water between northern and southern parts, which has a significant impact on various industries surrounding the lake. With the construction of a 180 ft bridge and the opening of the causeway for water to flow between the arms of the lake, water levels have begun to equalize. The impact of the flow of water from the southern arm of the lake to the northern is yet to be seen.</p><br>
<p>The northern arm of the lake has a much higher salinity, to the point that the native brine shrimp cannot survive in its waters. In the southern portion, where the vast majority of the fresh water inlets are found, the salt level can dip below what is necessary for the brine shrimp to survive, while water in the northern bay is too salty. The salinity of northern arm of the lake will likely drop as lower salinity from the southern arm of the lake flows into the northern arm. The brine shrimp harvesting industry could benefit from the causeway allowing a freer flow of water. There were concerns from the brine shrimp harvesting industry that the lake conditions in the southern arm of the lake were becoming too saline for the brine shrimp due to several years of lower precipitation in the lake&#39;s watershed. The precipitation in the watershed has been above normal for the current water year that begins its tracking October 1, 2016. This additional precipitation has allowed the levels of both arms of the lake to rise, and at least for the near future the conditions for a healthy brine shrimp population seem good.</p><br>
<p>Great Salt Lake Minerals Company (a subsidiary of Compass Minerals) which extracts minerals from the northern bay. The company potentially benefits from the higher salinity of the northwest arm of the lake but has had difficulties accessing water from the lake because of lower water level. Previous to the opening of the causeway they had had to extend their intake channels to reach the water.</p><br>
<p>Morton Salt, Cargill Salt, Broken Arrow Salt and the Renco Group&#39;s USA Magnesium each extract minerals from the southern bay, and could benefit from a more natural mixture of water between the two sides of the lake.</p><br>
<h3>Recreation</h3><br>
<p>Dramatically fluctuating lake levels have inhibited the creation and success of tourist-related developments. Additionally, there is a problem with pollution from industrial and urban effluent, as well as a natural "lake stink" caused by the decay of insects and other wildlife, particularly during times of low water.</p><br>
<p>Despite these issues, the lake remains one of Utah&#39;s largest tourist attractions. Antelope Island State Park is a popular tourist destination that offers panoramic views of the lake, hiking and biking trails, wildlife viewing and access to beaches.</p><br>
<p>The State of Utah operates a marina on the south shore of the lake at Great Salt Lake State Park, and another in Antelope Island State Park. With its sudden storms and expansive spread, the lake is a great test of sailing</p><br>
<p>skills. Single mast, simple sloops are the most popular boats. Sudden storms and lack of experience on the part of boatmen are the two most dangerous elements in boating and sailing on the Great Salt Lake.</p><br>
<h4>Saltair</h4><br>
<p>Three resorts, each called Saltair, have been operated on the southern shore of the lake since 1893, each one built as a successor to the previous one. Rising and lowering water levels have affected each iteration, and the first two were destroyed by fire.</p><br>
<p>The first Saltair pavilion was destroyed by fire on April 22, 1925. A new pavilion was built and the resort was expanded at the same location by new investors, but after years of various challenges, it was eventually destroyed by an arsonist in 1970.</p><br>
<p>The current Saltair serves as a concert venue. The new resort was completed in 1981, approximately a mile (1600 m) west of the original.</p><br>
<p>The second Saltair included a fun house and a dancing venue.</p><br>
<h4>Garfield Beach Resort</h4><br>
<p>The Garfield Beach Resort was established by Captain Thomas Douris in 1881 and was originally called Garfield Landing. Located near Black Rock just outside of the town of Corinne, patrons traveled to the resort via a steamboat named "General Garfield" in memory of the commander and president James A. Garfield. After the great expansion of the resort, the General Garfield was eventually replaced by two steamers, the Susie Riter and the Whirlwind. The iconic General Garfield was tied to the dock as a landmark. The success of Garfield Beach eventually overtook the neighboring Black Rock resort.</p><br>
<p>In 1887, the resort was purchased by the Utah and Nevada railroad and they improved the site by adding an extensive array of bathhouses, a restaurant, and other amenities like a bowling alley and venue. The resort was the Salt Lake&#39;s first to have an electric generator which powered its many concerts and parties held on the top of the pavilion tower. Garfield Beach was the most popular Salt Lake resort until Saltair was built in 1893. The resort was eventually put out of service by a fire in 1904.</p><br>
<h2>Legends and unusual features</h2><br>
<p>Monticello was the primary plantation of Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, who began designing and building Monticello at age 26 after inheriting land from his father. Located just outside Charlottesville, Virginia, in the Piedmont region, the plantation was originally 5,000 acre, with Jefferson using slaves for extensive cultivation of tobacco and mixed crops, later shifting from tobacco cultivation to wheat in response to changing markets. Due to its architectural and historic significance, the property has been designated a National Historic Landmark. In 1987 Monticello and the nearby University of Virginia, also designed by Jefferson, were together designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The current nickel, a United States coin, features a depiction of Monticello on its reverse side.</p><br>
<p>Jefferson designed the main house using neoclassical design principles described by Italian Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio and reworking the design through much of his presidency to include design elements popular in late 18th-century Europe and integrating numerous of his own design solutions. Situated on the summit of an 850 ft-high peak in the Southwest Mountains south of the Rivanna Gap, the name Monticello derives from the Italian for "little mount". Along a prominent lane adjacent to the house, Mulberry Row, the plantation came to include numerous outbuildings for specialized functions, e.g., a nailery; quarters for domestic slaves; gardens for flowers, produce, and Jefferson&#39;s experiments in plant breeding—along with tobacco fields and mixed crops. Cabins for field slaves were farther from the mansion.</p><br>
<p>At Jeffersons direction, he was buried on the grounds, in an area now designated as the Monticello Cemetery. The cemetery is owned by the Monticello Association, a society of his descendants through Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson. After Jeffersons death, his daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph sold the property. In 1834 it was bought by Uriah P. Levy, a commodore in the USA Navy, who admired Jefferson and spent his own money to preserve the property. His nephew Jefferson Monroe Levy took over the property in 1879; he also invested considerable money to restore and preserve it. In 1923, Monroe Levy sold it to the Thomas Jefferson Foundation (TJF), which operates it as a house museum and educational institution.</p><br>
<h2>Design and building</h2><br>
<p>Jefferson&#39;s home was built to serve as a plantation house, which ultimately took on the architectural form of a villa. It has many architectural antecedents, but Jefferson went beyond them to create something very much his own. He consciously sought to create a new architecture for a new nation.</p><br>
<p>Work began on what historians would subsequently refer to as "the first Monticello" in 1768, on a plantation of 5,000 acre. Jefferson moved into the South Pavilion (an outbuilding) in 1770, where his new wife Martha Wayles Skelton joined him in 1772. Jefferson continued work on his original design, but how much was completed is of some dispute. In constructing and later reconstructing his home, Jefferson used both free workers and enslaved laborers.</p><br>
<p>After his wife&#39;s death in 1782, Jefferson left Monticello in 1784 to serve as Minister of the United States to France. During his several years in Europe, he had an opportunity to see some of the classical buildings with which he had become acquainted from his reading, as well as to discover the "modern" trends in French architecture that were then fashionable in Paris. His decision to remodel his own home may date from this period. In 1794, following his service as the first USA Secretary of State (1790–1793), Jefferson began rebuilding his house based on the ideas he had acquired in Europe. The remodeling continued throughout most of his presidency (1801–1809). Although generally completed by 1809, Jefferson continued work on the present structure until his death in 1826.</p><br>
<p>Jefferson added a center hallway and a parallel set of rooms to the structure, more than doubling its area. He removed the second full-height story from the original house and replaced it with a mezzanine bedroom floor. The interior is centered on two large rooms, which served as an entrance-hall-museum, where Jefferson displayed his scientific interests, and a music-sitting room. The most dramatic element of the new design was an octagonal dome, which he placed above the west front of the building in place of a second-story portico. The room inside the dome was described by a visitor as "a noble and beautiful apartment," but it was rarely used—perhaps because it was hot in summer and cold in winter, or because it could only be reached by climbing a steep and very narrow flight of stairs. The dome room has now been restored to its appearance during Jefferson&#39;s lifetime, with "Mars yellow" walls and a painted green floor.</p><br>
<p>Summertime temperatures are high in the region, with indoor temperatures of around 100 &deg;F. Jefferson himself is known to have been interested in Roman and Renaissance texts about ancient temperature-control techniques such as ground-cooled air and heated floors. Monticello&#39;s large central hall and aligned windows were designed to allow a cooling air-current to pass through the house, and the octagonal cupola draws hot air up and out. Moderate air conditioning, designed to avoid the harm to the house and its contents that would be caused by major modifications and large temperature differentials, was installed in the house, a tourist attraction, in the late twentieth century.</p><br>
<p>Before Jeffersons death, Monticello had begun to show signs of disrepair. The attention Jeffersons university project in Charlottesville demanded, and family problems, diverted his focus. The most important reason for the mansions deterioration was his accumulating debts. In the last few years of Jeffersons life, much went without repair in Monticello. A witness, Samuel Whitcomb Jr., who visited Jefferson in 1824, thought it run down. He said, "His house is rather old and going to decay; appearances about his yard and hill are rather slovenly. It commands an extensive prospect but it being a misty cloudy day, I could see but little of the surrounding scenery."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After Jefferson died on July 4, 1826, his only official surviving daughter, Martha Jefferson Randolph, inherited Monticello. The estate was encumbered with debt and Martha Randolph had financial problems in her own family because of her husbands mental illness. In 1831 she sold Monticello to James Turner Barclay, a local apothecary. Barclay sold it in 1834 to Uriah P. Levy, the first Jewish Commodore (equivalent to todays admiral) in the United States Navy. A fifth-generation American whose family first settled in Savannah, Georgia, Levy greatly admired Jefferson and used his private funds to repair, restore and preserve the house. The Confederate government seized the house as enemy property at the outset of the American Civil War and sold it to Confederate officer Benjamin Franklin Ficklin. Levy&#39;s estate recovered the property after the war.</p><br>
<p>Levys heirs argued over his estate, but their lawsuits were settled in 1879, when Uriah Levys nephew, Jefferson Monroe Levy, a prominent New York lawyer, real estate and stock speculator (and later member of Congress), bought out the other heirs for $10,050, and took control of Monticello. Like his uncle, Jefferson Levy commissioned repairs, restoration and preservation of the grounds and house, which had been deteriorating seriously while the lawsuits wound their way through the courts in New York and Virginia. Together, the Levys preserved Monticello for nearly 100 years.</p><br>
<p>In 1923, a private non-profit organization, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, purchased the house from Jefferson Levy with funds raised by Theodore Fred Kuper and others. They managed additional restoration under architects including Fiske Kimball and Milton L. Grigg. Since that time, other restoration has been performed at Monticello.</p><br>
<p>The Foundation operates Monticello and its grounds as a house museum and educational institution. Visitors can wander the grounds, as well as tour rooms in the cellar and ground floor. More expensive tour pass options include sunset hours, as well as tours of the second floor and the third floor including the iconic dome.</p><br>
<p>Monticello is a National Historic Landmark. It is the only private home in the United States to be designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Included in that designation are the original grounds and buildings of Jefferson&#39;s University of Virginia. From 1989 to 1992, a team of architects from the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) of the United States created a collection of measured drawings of Monticello. These drawings are held by the Library of Congress.</p><br>
<p>Among Jefferson&#39;s other designs are Poplar Forest, his private retreat near Lynchburg (which he intended for his daughter Maria, who died at age 25); the University of Virginia, and the Virginia State Capitol in Richmond.</p><br>
<h2>Decoration and furnishings</h2><br>
<p>Much of Monticello&#39;s interior decoration reflects the personal ideas and ideals of Jefferson.</p><br>
<p>The original main entrance is through the portico on the east front. The ceiling of this portico incorporates a wind plate connected to a weather vane, showing the direction of the wind. A large clock face on the external east-facing wall has only an hour hand since Jefferson thought this was accurate enough for slaves. The clock reflects the time shown on the "Great Clock", designed by Jefferson, in the entrance hall. The entrance hall contains recreations of items collected by Lewis and Clark on the cross-country expedition commissioned by Jefferson to explore the Louisiana Purchase. Jefferson had the floorcloth painted a "true grass green" upon the recommendation of artist Gilbert Stuart, so that Jefferson&#39;s "essay in architecture" could invite the spirit of the outdoors into the house.</p><br>
<p>The south wing includes Jeffersons private suite of rooms. The library holds many books from his third library collection. His first library was burned in an accidental plantation fire, and he ceded&#39; (or sold) his second library in 1815 to the United States Congress to replace the books lost when the British burned the Capitol in 1814. This second library formed the nucleus of the Library of Congress.</p><br>
<p>As "larger than life" as Monticello seems, the house has approximately 11,000 ft&sup2; of living space. Jefferson considered much furniture to be a waste of space, so the dining room table was erected only at mealtimes, and beds were built into alcoves cut into thick walls that contain storage space. Jefferson&#39;s bed opens to two sides: to his cabinet (study) and to his bedroom (dressing room).</p><br>
<p>The west front (illustration) gives the impression of a villa of modest proportions, with a lower floor disguised in the hillside.</p><br>
<p>The north wing includes two guest bedrooms and the dining room. It has a dumbwaiter incorporated into the fireplace, as well as dumbwaiters (shelved tables on casters) and a pivoting serving door with shelves.</p><br>
<h2>Slave quarters on Mulberry Row</h2><br>
<p>Jefferson located one set of his slaves quarters on Mulberry Row, a one-thousand foot road of slave, service, and industrial structures. Mulberry Row was situated 300 ft south of Monticello, with the slave quarters facing the Jefferson mansion. These slave cabins were occupied by the slaves who worked in the mansion or in Jeffersons manufacturing ventures, and not by those who labored in the fields.</p><br>
<p>Archaeology of the site shows that the rooms of the slave cabins were much larger in the 1770s than in the 1790s. Researchers disagree as to whether this indicates that more slaves were crowded into a smaller spaces, or that fewer people lived in the smaller spaces. Earlier slave houses had a two-room plan, one family per room, with a single, shared doorway to the outside. But from the 1790s on, all rooms/families had independent doorways. Most of the cabins are free-standing, single-room structures.</p><br>
<p>By the time of Jeffersons death, some slave families had labored and lived for four generations at Monticello. Six families and their descendants were featured in the exhibit, Slavery at Jeffersons Monticello: Paradox of Liberty (January to October 2012) at the Smithsonian&#39;s National Museum of American History, which also examines Jefferson as slaveholder. Developed as a collaboration between the National Museum of African American History and Culture and Monticello, it is the first exhibit on the national mall to address these issues.</p><br>
<p>In February 2012, Monticello opened a new outdoor exhibit on its grounds: Landscape of Slavery: Mulberry Row at Monticello, to convey more about the lives of the hundreds of slaves who lived and worked at the plantation.</p><br>
<h2>Outbuildings and plantation</h2><br>
<p>The main house was augmented by small outlying pavilions to the north and south. A row of outbuildings (dairy, a washhouse, store houses, a small nail factory, a joinery etc.) and slaves quarters (log cabins), known as Mulberry Row, lay nearby to the south. A stone weavers cottage survives, as does the tall chimney of the joinery, and the foundations of other buildings. A cabin on Mulberry Row was, for a time, the home of Sally Hemings, the household slave who is widely believed to have had a 38-year relationship with the widower Jefferson and to have borne six children by him, four of whom survived to adulthood. The genealogist Helen F.M. Leary concluded that "the chain of evidence securely fastens Sally Hemings&#39;s children to their father, Thomas Jefferson." Later Hemings lived in a room in the "south dependency" below the main house.</p><br>
<p>On the slope below Mulberry Row, slaves maintained an extensive vegetable garden for Jefferson and the main house. In addition to growing flowers for display and producing crops for eating, Jefferson used the gardens of Monticello for experimenting with different species. The house was the center of a plantation of 5,000 acre tended by some 150 slaves. There are also two houses included in the whole.</p><br>
<h3>Programming</h3><br>
<p>In recent decades, the TJF has created programs to more fully interpret the lives of slaves at Monticello. Beginning in 1993, researchers interviewed descendants of Monticello slaves for the Getting Word Project, a collection of oral history that provided much new insight into the lives of slaves at Monticello and their descendants. (Among findings were that no slaves adopted Jefferson as a surname, but many had their own surnames as early as the 18th century.)</p><br>
<p>New research, publications and training for guides has been added since 2000, when the Foundations Research Committee concluded it was highly likely that Jefferson had fathered Sally Hemings children.</p><br>
<p>Some of Mulberry Row has been designated as archeological sites, where excavations and analysis are revealing much about slave life at the plantation. In the winter of 2000–2001, the slave burial ground at Monticello was discovered. In the fall of 2001, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation held a commemoration of the burial ground, in which the names of known slaves of Monticello were read aloud. Additional archeological work is providing information about African-American burial practices.</p><br>
<p>In 2003 Monticello welcomed a reunion of descendants of Jefferson from both the Wayles and Hemings sides of the family. It was organized by the descendants, who have created a new group called the Monticello Community. Additional and larger reunions have been held.</p><br>
<h3>Land purchase</h3><br>
<p>In 2004, the trustees acquired Mountaintop Farm (also known locally as Pattersons or Browns Mountain), the only property that overlooks Monticello. Jefferson had called the taller mountain Montalto. To prevent development of new homes on the site, the trustees spent $15 million to purchase the property. Jefferson had owned it as part of his plantation, but it was sold off after his death. In the 20th-century, its farmhouses were divided into apartments for many University of Virginia students. The officials at Monticello had long considered the property an eyesore, and planned to acquire it when it became available.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The house is similar in appearance to Chiswick House, a Neoclassical house inspired by the architect Andrea Palladio built in 1726-9 in London.</p><br>
<h2>Representation in other media</h2><br>
<p>Monticello was featured in Bob Vila&#39;s A&E Network production, Guide to Historic Homes of America, in a tour which included Honeymoon Cottage and the Dome Room, which is open to the public during a limited number of tours each year.</p><br>
<h2>Replicas</h2><br>
<p>In 2014, Prestley Blake constructed a 10,000 square foot replica of Monticello in Somers, Connecticut. It can be seen on Rte 186 also known as Hall Hill Rd.</p><br>
<p>A replica of Monticello was constructed in Chickasha, Oklahoma.</p><br>
<p>The entrance pavilion of the Naval Academy Jewish Chapel at Annapolis is modeled on Monticello.</p><br>
<p>Chamberlin Hall at Wilbraham & Monson Academy in Wilbraham, Massachusetts, built in 1962 and modeled on Monticello, serves as the location of the Academy&#39;s Middle School.</p><br>
<p>Completed in August 2015, Dallas Baptist University built one of the largest replicas of Monticello, including its entry halls and a dome room. Approximately 23,000 square feet, it is the home of the Gary Cook School of Leadership, as well as the University Chancellor&#39;s offices.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>Monticellos image has appeared on USA currency and postage stamps. An image of the west front of Monticello by Felix Schlag has been featured on the reverse of the nickel minted since 1938 (with a brief interruption in 2004 and 2005, when designs of the Westward Journey series appeared instead). It was also used as the title for the 2015 play Jeffersons Garden, which centred on his life.</p><br>
<p>Monticello also appeared on the reverse of the two-dollar bill from 1928 to 1966, when the bill was discontinued. The current bill was introduced in 1976 and retains Jeffersons portrait on the obverse but replaced Monticello on the reverse with an engraved modified reproduction of John Trumbulls painting Declaration of Independence. The gift shop at Monticello hands out two-dollar bills as change.</p><br>
<p>Aitutaki, also traditionally known as Araura and Utataki, is one of the Cook Islands, north of Rarotonga. It has a population of approximately 2,000. Aitutaki is the second most visited island of the Cook Islands. The main village is Arutanga  on the west side.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Aitutaki is an "almost atoll". It has a maximum elevation of approximately 123 metres with the hill known as Maunga Pu close to its northernmost point. The land area of the atoll is 18.05 km&sup2, of which the main island occupies 16.8 km&sup2;. The Ootu Peninsula, protruding east from the main island in a southerly direction along the eastern rim of the reef, takes up 1.75 km&sup2; out of the main island. For the lagoon, area figures between 50 and are found. Satellite image measurement suggests that the larger figure also includes the reef flat, which is commonly not considered part of a lagoon.</p><br>
<p>The barrier reef that forms the basis of Aitutaki is roughly the shape of an equilateral triangle with sides 12 km in length. The southern edge of the triangle is almost totally below the surface of the ocean, and the eastern side is composed of a string of small islands including Mangere, Akaiami, and Tekopua.</p><br>
<p>The western side of the atoll contains many of Aitutakis important features including a boat passage through the barrier reef allowing for anchorage close to shore at Arutanga. Towards the south of the side is a small break in the barrier reef, allowing access for small boats to the lagoon which covers most of the southern part of the triangle. Further to the north is the bulk of the main island. Its fertile volcanic soil provide tropical fruits and vegetables. Two of Aitutakis 15 islets (motus) are also volcanic. The rest are made of coral.</p><br>
<p>Aitutaki Airport is located close to the triangle&#39;s northern point. There is an area suitable to land flying boats in the southeastern part of the lagoon.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>Aitutaki is subdivided in 8 districts. The districts are further subdivided into 19 tapere (land holdings by tribe lineages).</p><br>
<p>The eight villages are:</p><br>
<p>Amuri (Te Upoko Enua)</p><br>
<p>Ureia (Uriuri A Punga)</p><br>
<p>Arutanga (Rutanga O Te Toa)</p><br>
<p>Reureu (Te Mata O Teerui)</p><br>
<p>Nikaupara (Te Maru O Toi)</p><br>
<p>Vaipae (Te Vaipaepae O Pau)</p><br>
<p>Tautu (Titi Ai Tonga)</p><br>
<p>Vaipeka (Te Arekarioi)</p><br>
<p>The eight districts are subdivided into 19 tapere as follows:</p><br>
<p>Amuri District</p><br>
<p>Amuri Tapere</p><br>
<p>Punganui Tapere</p><br>
<p>Anaunga District</p><br>
<p>Anaunga Tapere</p><br>
<p>Punoa Tapere</p><br>
<p>Arutanga District</p><br>
<p>Arutanga Tapere</p><br>
<p>Reureu Tapere</p><br>
<p>Nukunoni Tapere</p><br>
<p>Ureia Tapere</p><br>
<p>Avanui District</p><br>
<p>Avanui Tapere</p><br>
<p>Vaipeka Tapere</p><br>
<p>Taravao District</p><br>
<p>Taravao Tapere</p><br>
<p>Vaiau Tapere</p><br>
<p>Vaiorea Tapere</p><br>
<p>Tautu District</p><br>
<p>Mataotane Tapere</p><br>
<p>Tautu Tapere</p><br>
<p>Vaipae District</p><br>
<p>Oako Tapere</p><br>
<p>Vaipae Tapere</p><br>
<p>Vaitupa District</p><br>
<p>Taakarere Tapere</p><br>
<p>Vaitupa Tapere</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Polynesians first settled Aitutaki around AD 900. The first known European contact was with Captain Bligh and the crew of the when they also arrived in Aitutaki on April 11, 1789, prior to the infamous mutiny.</p><br>
<p>Aitutaki was the first of the Cook Islands to accept Christianity, after London Missionary Society (LMS) missionary John Williams visited in 1821. The oldest church in the country, the Cook Islands Christian Church in Arutanga, was built by Papeiha (Bora Bora) and Vahapata (Raiatea), two LMS teachers Williams had left behind.</p><br>
<p>On 8-9 October 1900 seven instruments of cession of Rarotonga and other islands were signed by their chiefs and people; and by a British Proclamation issued at the same time the cessions were accepted, the islands being declared parts of Her Britanic Majestys dominions. Uniquely, these instruments did not include Aitutaki. It appears that, though the inhabitants of Aitutaki regarded themselves as British subjects, the Crowns title was uncertain, and the island was formally annexed by Proclamation dated 9 October 1900. It was the only island in the Cook Islands that was annexed rather than ceded.</p><br>
<p>In 1942 New Zealand and American forces were stationed on the island, building the two-way airstrip that can be seen today. This airport, and one on the northernmost Penrhyn Island, were to be used as bases by the Allies during World War II. The first aircraft, an American light bomber, landed on November 22, 1942. When the war ended some of the servicemen remained and married the locals.</p><br>
<p>During the 1950s Aitutaki&#39;s lagoon was used as a stopover for TEAL (Tasman Empire Airways Limited) flying boats on the famous Coral Route. The islet of Akaiami was used as a resting stop for passengers, who often lay about until the aircraft was refuelled for two hours. These operations ceased in 1960, and the only reminder are the remains of the purpose-built jetty on Akaiami. The flying boat Aranui, which was part of this service, is now on display at the Museum of Transport and Technology in Auckland, New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>Two of Aitutaki&#39;s motus (small islands), Rapota and Moturakau, were the locations of the first series of the UK reality television program Shipwrecked in 2000.</p><br>
<p>More recently, in 2001, Steve Fossett passed over just south of Aitutaki in the balloon Solo Spirit during his round-the-world trip.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, the island was used as the location for the tribal council in the US TV program Survivor: Cook Islands. Surrounding islands were used for tribal camps and crew locations. One of the tribes was named Aitutaki (or Aitu) after the island.</p><br>
<p>Then, not long afterwards, Shipwrecked returned again, with Shipwrecked: Battle of the Islands 2006. This was filmed on the same islands as before. One year later, Aitutaki was the locale of an episode of Survivorman.</p><br>
<p>On February 10–11, 2010, Aitutaki was hit by Cyclone Pat. The high winds of the storm ripped the roofs off of most houses and damaged other buildings including a school and a hospital. At least 60% of houses were damaged. There were no reported deaths but a few minor injuries were reported.</p><br>
<p>An Air Force Hercules cargo plane and an army engineering team were provided by New Zealand along with an initial $200,000. Cook Island MP Teina Bishop said "New Zealand aid should have been sent to the devastated area much sooner.".</p><br>
<p>In June 2010 the island was nominated "the world&#39;s most beautiful island" by Tony Wheeler the founder of Lonely Planet travel guide.</p><br>
<p>The delegates of the 2012 Pacific Islands Forum, which had its main venue in Rarotonga, travelled to One Foot Island for a 2-day retreat.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The population of Aitutaki is 2,194.</p><br>
<h2>Places of interest</h2><br>
<p>Aitutaki is famous for its turquoise central lagoon, uninhabited islands and palm-fringed beaches. Another advantage is that until now it has been spared by mass tourism. Noteworthy also are an old church (the oldest in the Cook Islands) and some gigantic Banyan trees (Ficus prolixa).</p><br>
<p>Tapuaetai (One Foot Island), a small islet in the south-east of the lagoon, is often said to be the most important attraction. It is regarded as providing the visitor with the best views of the Aitutaki lagoon and, depending on the tide, one is able to walk on a sandbank a decent distance away from Tapuaetai. The trip to this island is the most frequented trip available on Aitutaki. One Foot Island was awarded "Australasia&#39;s Leading Beach" at the World Travel Awards held in Sydney in June 2008.</p><br>
<p>Air Rarotonga offers daily flights and a day tour from Rarotonga.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Government jobs are the source of income for the largest number of locals followed closely by tourism.</p><br>
<p>Tourism numbers have started to climb recently with the exposure Aitutaki has been given by travel programmes.</p><br>
<p>The recent addition of a newly built resort has helped to increase tourism numbers.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>The most popular sport on Aitutaki is Rugby union and netball, followed closely by volleyball. With a population of 2,000 residing on the island and 50,000 overseas, there are four clubs on Aitutaki and eight teams (each club having a first team and a reserve team). The best players on the island play for the Aitutaki island team against their main rivals Rarotonga.</p><br>
<h2>Postage stamps</h2><br>
<h2>Minor islands of Aitutaki</h2><br>
<p>The main island of Aitutaki occupies the northern part of the atoll, which is roughly triangular in shape. The minor islands form part of the perimeter of the lagoon. All islands, including the main island and its peninsula Ootu, are listed starting clockwise from the northernmost point of the atoll:</p><br>
<p>Ootu Peninsula is of coral formation, but attached to the main volcanic island, thus a peninsula. If it were an island, it would be the largest of the minor islands. Ootu Peninsula does belong to tapere and district of Vaitupa. The minor islands are not allocated to any districts or tapere, but they do form part of the larger constituencies.</p><br>
<p>All minor islets, except Akitua and Maina, are part of Vaipae-Tautu Constituency. Akitua is part of Amuri-Ureia Constituency, as is Ootu Peninsula, just north of Akitua. Maina is part of Arutanga-Reureu-Nikaupara Constituency. The main island is equally divided among the three constituencies Arutanga-Reureu-Nikaupara (southwest), Vaipae-Tautu (southeast), and Amuri-Ureia (north).</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Araura College is the only secondary school on Aitutaki. The school has the role of teaching approximately 200 students from Year 7 (Form 1) to Year 12 (Form 6).</p><br>
<p>The island has two government schools and one church school: Araura Primary school, Vaitau Primary School and Tekaaroa Primary School. Tekaaroa Primary School is a private special character school which is the designated Seventh Day Adventist (SDA) school. Araura Primary is the larger of the primary schools, catering for the mostly populated part of the island and Vaitau Primary caters mostly for the Vaipae and Tautu villages. Tekaaroa Primary School caters for the Seventh Day Adventist children on the island.</p><br>
<p>All schools follow the Cook Islands Curriculum Framework. This is largely based on the New Zealand Curriculum Framework, as most of the young people will eventually migrate to New Zealand to study there at universities or polytechnics. Students from Year 11 (Form 5) and Year 12 (Form 6) are the exception, as they study from the New Zealand Curriculum Framework at NCEA Levels 1, 2 and 3.</p><br>
<p>The Lincoln Memorial is an American national monument built to honor the 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln. It is located on the western end of the National Mall in Washington, D.C., across from the Washington Monument. The architect was Henry Bacon; the designer of the primary statue – Abraham Lincoln, 1920 – was Daniel Chester French; the Lincoln statue was carved by the Piccirilli Brothers; and the painter of the interior murals was Jules Guerin. Dedicated in 1922, it is one of several monuments built to honor an American president. It has always been a major tourist attraction and since the 1930s has been a symbolic center focused on race relations.</p><br>
<p>The building is in the form of a Greek Doric temple and contains a large seated sculpture of Abraham Lincoln and inscriptions of two well-known speeches by Lincoln, "The Gettysburg Address" and his Second Inaugural Address. The memorial has been the site of many famous speeches, including Martin Luther King Jr.&#39;s "I Have a Dream" speech, delivered on August 28, 1963, during the rally at the end of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.</p><br>
<p>Like other monuments on the National Mall – including the nearby Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Korean War Veterans Memorial, and National World War II Memorial – the memorial is administered by the National Park Service under its National Mall and Memorial Parks group. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since October 15, 1966. It is open to the public 24 hours a day. In 2007, it was ranked seventh on the List of America&#39;s Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects. Since 2010, approximately 6 million people visit the memorial annually.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first public memorial to Abraham Lincoln in Washington, D.C., was a statue by Lot Flannery erected in front of the District of Columbia City Hall in 1868, three years after Lincolns assassination. Demands for a fitting national memorial had been voiced since the time of Lincolns death. In 1867, Congress passed the first of many bills incorporating a commission to erect a monument for the sixteenth president. An American sculptor, Clark Mills, was chosen to design the monument. His plans reflected the nationalistic spirit of the time, and called for a 70 ft structure adorned with six equestrian and 31 pedestrian statues of colossal proportions, crowned by a 12 ft statue of Abraham Lincoln. Subscriptions for the project were insufficient.</p><br>
<p>The matter lay dormant until the start of the 20th century, when, under the leadership of Senator Shelby M. Cullom of Illinois, six separate bills were introduced in Congress for the incorporation of a new memorial commission. The first five bills, proposed in the years 1901, 1902, and 1908, met with defeat because of opposition from Speaker Joe Cannon. The sixth bill (Senate Bill 9449), introduced on December 13, 1910, passed. The Lincoln Memorial Commission had its first meeting the following year and USA President William H. Taft was chosen as the commissions president. Progress continued at a steady pace and by 1913 Congress had approved of the Commissions choice of design and location.</p><br>
<p>There were questions regarding the commissions plan. Many thought that architect Henry Bacons Greek temple design was far too ostentatious for a man of Lincoln&#39;s humble character. Instead they proposed a simple log cabin shrine. The site too did not go unopposed. The recently reclaimed land in West Potomac Park was seen by many to be either too swampy or too inaccessible. Other sites, such as Union Station, were put forth. The Commission stood firm in its recommendation, feeling that the Potomac Park location, situated on the Washington Monument-Capitol axis, overlooking the Potomac River and surrounded by open land, was ideal. Furthermore, the Potomac Park site had already been designated in the McMillan Plan of 1901 to be the location of a future monument comparable to that of the Washington Monument.</p><br>
<p>With Congressional approval and a $300,000 allocation, the project got underway. On February 12, 1914, a dedication ceremony was conducted and the following month the actual construction began. Work progressed steadily according to schedule. Some changes were made to the plan. The statue of Lincoln, originally designed to be 10 ft tall, was enlarged to 19 ft to prevent it from being overwhelmed by the huge chamber. As late as 1920, the decision was made to substitute an open portal for the bronze and glass grille which was to have guarded the entrance. Despite these changes, the Memorial was finished on schedule. Commission president William H. Taft – who was then Chief Justice of the United States – dedicated the Memorial on May 30, 1922 and presented it to President Warren G. Harding, who accepted it on behalf of the American people. Lincoln&#39;s only surviving son, 78-year-old Robert Todd Lincoln, was in attendance.</p><br>
<p>The Memorial was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.</p><br>
<h2>Exterior</h2><br>
<p>The exterior of the Memorial echoes a classic Greek temple and features Yule marble from Colorado. The structure measures 189.7 by and is 99 ft tall. It is surrounded by a peristyle of 36 fluted Doric columns, one for each of the 36 states in the Union at the time of Lincolns death, and two columns in-antis at the entrance behind the colonnade. The columns stand 44 ft tall with a base diameter of 7.5 ft. Each column is built from 12 drums including the capital. The columns, like the exterior walls and facades, are inclined slightly toward the buildings interior. This is to compensate for perspective distortions which would otherwise make the memorial appear to bulge out at the top when compared with the bottom, a common feature of Ancient Greek architecture.</p><br>
<p>Above the colonnade, inscribed on the frieze, are the names of the 36 states in the Union at the time of Lincolns death and the dates in which they entered the Union. Their names are separated by double wreath medallions in bas-relief. The cornice is composed of a carved scroll regularly interspersed with projecting lions heads and ornamented with palmetto cresting along the upper edge. Above this on the attic frieze are inscribed the names of the 48 states present at the time of the Memorial&#39;s dedication. A bit higher is a garland joined by ribbons and palm leaves, supported by the wings of eagles. All ornamentation on the friezes and cornices was done by Ernest C. Bairstow.</p><br>
<p>The Memorial is anchored in a concrete foundation, 44 to 66 ft in depth, constructed by M. F. Comer and Company and the National Foundation and Engineering Company, and is encompassed by a 187 by rectangular granite retaining wall measuring 14 ft in height.</p><br>
<p>Leading up to the shrine on the east side are the main steps. Beginning at the edge of the Reflecting Pool, the steps rise to the Lincoln Memorial Circle roadway surrounding the edifice, then to the main portal, intermittently spaced with a series of platforms. Flanking the steps as they approach the entrance are two buttresses each crowned with an 11 ft tall tripod carved from pink Tennessee marble by the Piccirilli Brothers.</p><br>
<h2>Interior</h2><br>
<p>The Memorials interior is divided into three chambers by two rows of four Ionic columns, each 50 ft tall and 5.5 ft across at their base. The central chamber, housing the statue of Lincoln, is 60 feet wide, 74 feet deep, and 60 feet high. The north and south chambers display carved inscriptions of Lincolns second inaugural address and his Gettysburg Address. Bordering these inscriptions are pilasters ornamented with fasces, eagles, and wreaths. The inscriptions and adjoining ornamentation are by Evelyn Beatrice Longman.</p><br>
<p>The Memorial is replete with symbolic elements. The 36 columns represent the states of the Union at the time of Lincolns death; the 48 stone festoons above the columns represent the 48 states in 1922. Inside, each inscription is surmounted by a 60 by mural by Jules Guerin portraying principles seen as evident in Lincolns life: Freedom, Liberty, Immortality, Justice, and the Law on the south wall; Unity, Fraternity, and Charity on the north. Cypress trees, representing Eternity, are in the murals backgrounds. The murals paint incorporated kerosene and wax to protect the exposed artwork from fluctuations in temperature and moisture.</p><br>
<p>The ceiling consists of bronze girders ornamented with laurel and oak leaves. Between these are panels of Alabama marble, saturated with paraffin to increase translucency. But feeling that the statue required even more light, Bacon and French designed metal slats for the ceiling to conceal floodlights, which could be modulated to supplement the natural light; this modification was installed in 1929. The one major alteration since was the addition of a handicapped elevator in the 1970s.</p><br>
<h2>Statue</h2><br>
<p>Lying between the north and south chambers is the central hall containing the solitary figure of Lincoln sitting in contemplation. The statue was carved by the Piccirilli Brothers under the supervision of the sculptor, Daniel Chester French, and took four years to complete. The statue, originally intended to be only 10 ft tall, was, on further consideration, enlarged so that it finally stood 19 ft tall from head to foot, the scale being such that if Lincoln were standing, he would be 28 ft tall. The widest span of the statue corresponds to its height. Of Georgia white marble, it weighs 175 ST and was shipped in twenty-eight pieces.</p><br>
<p>The statue rests upon an oblong pedestal of Tennessee marble 10 ft high, 16 ft wide, and 17 ft deep. Directly beneath this lies a platform of Tennessee marble about 34.5 ft long, 28 ft wide, and 6.5 in high. Lincolns arms rest on representations of Roman fasces, a subtle touch that associates the statue with the Augustan (and imperial) theme (obelisk and funerary monuments) of the Washington Mall. The statue is discretely bordered by two pilasters, one on each side. Between these pilasters, and above Lincolns head, is engraved an epitaph of Lincoln by Royal Cortissoz.</p><br>
<h3>Sculptural features</h3><br>
<p>The sculpture has been at the center of two urban legends. Some have claimed that the face of General Robert E. Lee was carved onto the back of Lincoln&#39;s head,</p><br>
<p>However, historian Gerald Prokopowicz writes that, while it is not clear that sculptor Daniel Chester French intended Lincolns hands to be formed into sign language versions of his initials, it is possible that French did intend it, because he was familiar with American Sign Language, and he would have had a reason to do so, that is, to pay tribute to Lincoln for having signed the federal legislation giving Gallaudet University, a university for the deaf, the authority to grant college degrees. The National Geographic Societys publication, "Pinpointing the Past in Washington, D.C." states that Daniel Chester French had a son who was deaf and that the sculptor was familiar with sign language. Historian James A. Percoco has observed that, although there are no extant documents showing that French had Lincolns hands carved to represent the letters "A" and "L" in American Sign Language, "I think you can conclude that its reasonable to have that kind of summation about the hands."</p><br>
<h2>Sacred space</h2><br>
<p>As Sandage (1993) demonstrates, the Memorial has become a symbolically sacred venue especially for the Civil Rights Movement. In 1939, the Daughters of the American Revolution refused to allow the African-American contralto Marian Anderson to perform before an integrated audience at the organization&#39;s Constitution Hall. At the suggestion of Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harold L. Ickes, the Secretary of the Interior, arranged for a performance on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial on Easter Sunday of that year, to a live audience of 70,000, and a nationwide radio audience.</p><br>
<p>On August 28, 1963, the memorial grounds were the site of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which proved to be a high point of the American Civil Rights Movement. It is estimated that approximately 250,000 people came to the event, where they heard Martin Luther King Jr., deliver his historic speech, "I Have a Dream", before the memorial honoring the president who had issued the Emancipation Proclamation 100 years earlier. Kings speech, with its language of patriotism and its evocation of Lincolns Gettysburg Address, was meant to match the symbolism of the Lincoln Memorial as a monument to national unity. The D.C. police also appreciated the location because it was surrounded on three sides by water, so that any incident could be easily contained. Twenty years later, on August 28, 1983, crowds gathered again to mark the 20th Anniversary Mobilization for Jobs, Peace and Freedom, to reflect on progress in gaining civil rights for African Americans and to commit to correcting continuing injustices. The "I Have a Dream" speech is such a part of the Lincoln Memorial story, that the spot on which King stood, on the landing eighteen steps below Lincoln&#39;s statue, was engraved in 2003 in recognition of the 40th anniversary of the event.</p><br>
<p>At the memorial on May 9, 1970, President Richard Nixon had a middle-of-the-night impromptu, brief meeting with protesters who, just days after the Kent State shootings, were preparing to march against the Vietnam War.</p><br>
<h3>Vandalism</h3><br>
<p>In September 1962, vandals painted the words "nigger lover" in foot-high pink letters on the rear wall.</p><br>
<p>On the morning of July 26, 2013, the memorial was shut down after the statue&#39;s base and legs were splashed with green paint. It reopened later that day. A 58-year-old Chinese national, Jiamei Tian, was later found responsible for the vandalism. Following her arrest at the Washington National Cathedral, she was admitted to St. Elizabeths Hospital, a psychiatric facility, and was later found to be incompetent to stand trial; she has since been released from the hospital.</p><br>
<p>On February 27, 2017, graffiti written in permanent marker was found at the memorial, the Washington Monument, the District of Columbia War Memorial, and the National World War II Memorial, saying "Jackie shot JFK", "blood test is a lie", as well as other claims. Street signs and utility boxes were also defaced. Authorities believed that a single person was responsible for all the vandalism.</p><br>
<p>On August 15, 2017, graffiti that Reuters reported "appeared to read fuck law" was spray painted in red on one of the columns. The initials "M+E" were etched on the same pillar. A "mild, gel-type architectural paint stripper" was used to remove the paint without damaging the memorial. However, the etching was deemed "permanent damage." A Smithsonian Institution directional sign several blocks away was also defaced.</p><br>
<p>On September 18, 2017, Nurtilek Bakirov from Kyrgyzstan was arrested when a police officer saw him vandalizing the Memorial at around 1:00 PM EDT. Bakirov used a penny to carve the letters "HYPT MAEK" in what appeared to Cyrillic letters into the fifth pillar on the north side., police do not know what the words mean, although there is a possibility that they contain a reference to the vandal&#39;s name. Court documents indicate that the letters can not be completely removed, but could be polished at the cost of approximately $2,000. A conservator for the National Park Service said that the stone would weather over time, helping to obscure the letters, although she characterized it as "permanent damage".</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>As one of the most prominent American monuments, the Lincoln Memorial is often featured in books, films, and television shows that take place in Washington; by 2003 it had appeared in over 60 films, and in 2009, Mark S. Reinhart compiled some short sketches of dozens of uses of the Memorial in film and television.</p><br>
<p>Some examples of films include Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, in a key scene where the statue and its inscription provide inspiration to freshman Senator Jefferson Smith, played by James Stewart &ndash; the Park Service did not want director Frank Capra to film at the Memorial, so he sent a large crew elsewhere as a distraction while a smaller crew filmed Stewart and Jean Arthur at the Memorial; The Day the Earth Stood Still, a science fiction film in which the alien Klaatu visits the Memorial and is impressed by Lincoln&#39;s words carved there; the 2001 version of Planet of the Apes; X-Men: First Class; the 2011 film Transformers: Dark of the Moon, where Megatron destroys the statue of Lincoln and then sits on the chair as a throne; and the 2016 horror movie The Purge: Election Year, in which the Lincoln Memorial is shown with dead and burning bodies on the steps and the columns defaced with giant letters that spell out "PURGE", written in human blood.</p><br>
<p>Other films and television programs which have featured the Memorial include In the Line of Fire; National Treasure, in which the main characters discuss the possibility of stealing the Declaration of Independence while sitting on the steps of the Memorial; the comedy Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian, where the statue of Lincoln helps defeat the Horus warriors; the "Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington" episode of The Simpsons; the scene from Forrest Gump, in which Forrest (Tom Hanks) delivers a speech standing on a podium in front of the Memorial facing the reflecting pool; and the 2013 film White House Down, in which the President (Jamie Foxx) requests a fly-by of the Lincoln Memorial, at both the beginning and the end of the movie to pay homage to his hero.</p><br>
<p>Many of the appearances of the Lincoln Memorial are actually digital visual effects, due to restrictive filming rules. As of 2017, according to the National Park Service, "Filming/photography is prohibited above the white marble steps and the interior chamber of the Lincoln Memorial."</p><br>
<p>Mitchell Newton-Matza argued in 2016, "Reflecting its cherished place in the hearts of Americans, the Lincoln Memorial has often been featured prominently in popular culture, especially motion pictures." According to Tracey Gold Bennett, "The majesty of the Lincoln Memorial is a big draw for film location scouts, producers, and directors because this landmark has appeared in a considerable number of films."</p><br>
<p>Jay Sacher writes: From high to low, the memorial is cultural shorthand for both American ideals and 1960s radicalism. From Forrest Gumps Zelig-like insertion into anti-war rallies on the steps of the memorial, to the villainous Decepticon robots discarding the Lincoln statue and claiming it as a throne....The memorials place in the culture is assured even as it is parodied.</p><br>
<h2>Depictions on USA currency</h2><br>
<p>From 1959 (the 150th anniversary of Lincoln&#39;s birth) to 2008, the memorial, with statue visible through the columns, was depicted on the reverse of the United States one-cent coin, which since 1909 has depicted a bust of Lincoln on its front.</p><br>
<p>The memorial has appeared on the back of the USA five-dollar bill since 1929. The front of the bill bears Lincoln&#39;s portrait.</p><br>
<p>The River Afan is a river in Wales whose river valley formed the territory of the medieval Lords of Afan. The Afan Valley encompasses the upper reaches of the river. The valley is traversed by the A4107 Afan Valley Road. Settlements in the area include Cwmafan, Pwll-y-glaw and Cymmer. The town of Aberavon grew up on the banks of the river, and was later subsumed by the larger centre of population known as Port Talbot. The political constituency still retains the name Aberavon .</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The rivers name is old and there is no definite agreement on its origin. One suggestion is that it is from "A-Ban" meaning "from the heights" due to its comparatively quick descent from hills to the sea. (Compare to the Ban&#39; in "Bannau Brycheiniog", the Brecon Beacons). However, such a name would be very unusual for a river. It is not parallelled elsewhere, and does not fit in with the pattern of Welsh stream and river nomenclature in general.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The river Afan begins its journey at the village of Cymmer (meaning confluence) where the rivers Corrwg and Gwynfi (see Tributaries below). The river runs in a more or less south-westerly direction parallel to the River Neath with which it shares its western watershed. It converges with the river Pelenna at Pontrhydyfen. From here it turns southward towards Port Talbot. To aid the construction of the docks at Port Talbot, the river was diverted away slightly. Before it reaches the sea, the river drops over a 12-foot high vertical weir called the Slaughterhouse Falls.</p><br>
<p>The River passes the Afan Argoed Country Park in its middle reaches.</p><br>
<p>A motte and bailey castle stood on the banks of the river as it passed through Aberavon during the medieval period. No remains are now visible above ground, but the site of the castle is commemorated in local street names.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The river is about 18 km long. In the east it borders the River Kenfig and then the River Llynfi, a tributary of the River Ogmore. The river Gwynfi, one of the tributaries that form the river, shares a watershed with the Rhondda Fawr, a tributary of the River Taff.</p><br>
<h2>Industrial past</h2><br>
<p>For much of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, the River Afan was severely polluted by the coal and iron industry. With the decline in the coal mining industry, the quality of the river improved in the 1960s and 1970s so that some salmon and sea-trout started to return to the river to spawn. A number of weirs on the river had to be made passable to allow fish to ascend the river. This required the creation of fish passes on some weirs such as on the Dock feeder weir and the demolition of others such as at Corlannau weir.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<h3>Afon Corrwg</h3><br>
<p>The river Corrwg is one of the two rivers to form the Afan. Its length is approximately 11 km, and its source lies in the hills south of Glyn-neath. It has one major tributary called the Afon Corrwg Fechan, as well as other numerous streams. The river is known for the numerous waterfalls along its length. Although the water is clear today, discharge from the many collieries along its lower reaches led to noticeable pollution. Minor discharge sometimes leaks from the Glyncorrwg colliery, although its effects do not have a noticeably detrimental effect on the river.</p><br>
<h3>Afon Gwynfi</h3><br>
<p>The Afon Gwynfi joins the Corrwg at Cymer. It is 8 km long, and starts at Blaengwynfi, where two small rivers join. Its source is only a couple of miles away from that of the rivers Rhondda and Ogmore. Strangely, there seems to be some confusion between the Gwynfi and the Afan itself; one of the two streams that form the river is named the Nant Gwynfi, while the other appears not to have a name, but is labelled on the Ordnance Survey map of the area as "River Afan" (as is the entire length of the Gwynfi). This is likely a mistake, but the spring from which this river comes is called Blwch-yr-Afan, meaning "Source of the Afan River".</p><br>
<p>The river is slightly alkaline due to continuing, albeit minor, pollution discharge from the Corrwg Rhondda and Glyncorrwg collieries.</p><br>
<h3>River Pelenna</h3><br>
<p>A major tributary, the River Pelenna,which meets the Afan at Pontrhydyfen, suffered more severely from pollution than the main river because of the sulphur-rich coal produced by the mines in that area. As a result, the abandoned coal mines continued to discharge acid mine drainage rich in iron and highly acidic. This turned much of the river orange down to the confluence of the Pelena with the main river Afan. The Orange colour could often be seen as far down stream as Pontrhydyfen. There were a number of collieries contributing to the pollution although the major source was the Whitworth Colliery. At the height of coal extraction in the valley, there were several deep pits and numerous levels. This pollution is now much mitigated</p><br>
<p>following extensive work promoted by the Environment Agency in the creation of engineered reed beds to treat the mine drainage.</p><br>
<h3>Nant Ffrwdwyllt</h3><br>
<p>With a length of just under 8 km, this was a small tributary of the Afan shortly before it entered the sea. The Nant Ffrwdwyllt was diverted in the 18th century into the ironworks at what was to become Port Talbot to provide a source of water. It remains diverted flowing into the Port Talbot Docks.</p><br>
<p>Hampton Court Palace is a royal palace in the borough of Richmond upon Thames, London, England, 11.7 mi south west and upstream of central London on the River Thames. Building of the palace began in 1515 for Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, a favourite of King Henry VIII. In 1529, as Wolsey fell from favour, the King seized the palace for himself and later enlarged it. Along with St James&#39;s Palace, it is one of only two surviving palaces out of the many owned by King Henry VIII.</p><br>
<p>In the following century, King William IIIs massive rebuilding and expansion project, which destroyed much of the Tudor palace, was intended to rival Versailles. Work ceased in 1694, leaving the palace in two distinct contrasting architectural styles, domestic Tudor and Baroque. While the palaces styles are an accident of fate, a unity exists due to the use of pink bricks and a symmetrical, if vague, balancing of successive low wings. King George II was the last monarch to reside in the palace.</p><br>
<p>Today, the palace is open to the public and is a major tourist attraction, easily reached by train from Waterloo station in central London and served by Hampton Court railway station in East Molesey, in Transport for London&#39;s Zone 6. In addition, London Buses routes 111, 216, 411 and R68 stop outside the palace gates. The structure and grounds are cared for by an independent charity, Historic Royal Palaces, which receives no funding from the Government or the Crown. In addition the palace continues to display a large number of works of art from the Royal Collection.</p><br>
<p>Apart from the Palace itself and its gardens, other points of interest for visitors include the celebrated maze, the historic real tennis court (see below), and the huge grape vine, the largest in the world.</p><br>
<p>The palace&#39;s Home Park is the site of the annual Hampton Court Palace Festival and Hampton Court Palace Flower Show.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Tudor times</h3><br>
<p>Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York, Chief Minister and favourite of Henry VIII, took over the site of Hampton Court Palace in 1514. It had previously been a property of the Order of St John of Jerusalem.) which contained his private rooms (O on plan). Henry VIII stayed in the state apartments as Wolsey&#39;s guest immediately after their completion in 1525.</p><br>
<p>In building his palace, Wolsey was attempting to create a Renaissance cardinals palace of a rectilinear symmetrical plan with grand apartments on a raised piano nobile, all rendered with classical detailing. The historian Jonathan Foyle has suggested that it is likely that Wolsey had been inspired by Paolo Corteses De Cardinalatu, a manual for cardinals that included advice on palatial architecture, published in 1510. The architectural historian Sir John Summerson asserts that the palace shows "the essence of Wolsey—the plain English churchman who nevertheless made his sovereign the arbiter of Europe and who built and furnished Hampton Court to show foreign embassies that Henry VIII&#39;s chief minister knew how to live as graciously as any cardinal in Rome." Whatever the concepts were, the architecture is an excellent and rare example of a thirty-year era when English architecture was in a harmonious transition from domestic Tudor, strongly influenced by perpendicular Gothic, to the Italian Renaissance classical style. Perpendicular Gothic owed nothing historically to the Renaissance style, yet harmonised well with it. This blending of styles was realised by a small group of Italian craftsmen working at the English court in the second and third decades of the sixteenth century. They specialised in the adding of Renaissance ornament to otherwise straightforward Tudor buildings. It was one of these, Giovanni da Maiano who was responsible for the set of eight relief busts of Roman emperors which were set in the Tudor brickwork.</p><br>
<p>Wolsey was only to enjoy his palace for a few years. In 1528, knowing that his enemies and the King were engineering his downfall, he passed the palace to the King as a gift. Wolsey died two years later in 1530.</p><br>
<p>Within six months of coming into ownership, the King began his own rebuilding and expansion. Henry VIIIs court consisted of over one thousand people, while the King owned over sixty houses and palaces. Few of these were large enough to hold the assembled court, and thus one of the first of the Kings building works (in order to transform Hampton Court to a principal residence) was to build the vast kitchens. These were quadrupled in size in 1529, enabling the King to provide bouche of court for his entire court. The architecture of King Henry&#39;s new palace followed the design precedent set by Wolsey: perpendicular Gothic-inspired Tudor with restrained Renaissance ornament. This hybrid architecture was to remain almost unchanged for nearly a century, until Inigo Jones introduced strong classical influences from Italy to the London palaces of the first Stuart kings.</p><br>
<p>Between 1532 and 1535 Henry added the Great Hall (the last medieval great hall built for the English monarchy) and the Royal Tennis Court. The Great Hall has a carved hammer-beam roof. During Tudor times, this was the most important room of the palace; here, the King would dine in state seated at a table upon a raised dais. The hall took five years to complete; so impatient was the King for completion that the masons were compelled to work throughout the night by candlelight.</p><br>
<p>The gatehouse to the second, inner court was adorned in 1540 with the Hampton Court astronomical clock, an early example of a pre-Copernican astronomical clock. Still functioning, the clock shows the time of day, the phases of the moon, the month, the quarter of the year, the date, the sun and star sign, and high water at London Bridge. The latter information was of great importance to those visiting this Thames-side palace from London, as the preferred method of transport at the time was by barge, and at low water London Bridge created dangerous rapids. This gatehouse is also known today as Anne Boleyns gate, after Henrys second wife. Work was still underway on Anne Boleyn&#39;s apartments above the gate when Boleyn was beheaded.</p><br>
<p>During the Tudor period, the palace was the scene of many historic events. In 1537, the Kings much desired male heir, the future Edward VI, was born at the palace and the childs mother, Jane Seymour, died there two weeks later. Four years afterwards, whilst attending Mass in the palace&#39;s chapel, the King was informed of the adultery of his fifth wife, Catherine Howard. She was then confined to her room for a few days before being sent to Syon House and then on to the Tower of London. Legend claims she briefly escaped her guards and ran through The Haunted Gallery to beg Henry for her life but she was recaptured.</p><br>
<p>King Henry died in January 1547 and was succeeded first by his son Edward VI, and then by both his daughters in turn. It was to Hampton Court that Queen Mary I (Henrys elder daughter) retreated with King Philip to spend her honeymoon, after their wedding at Winchester. Mary chose Hampton Court as the place for the birth of her first child, which turned out to be the first of two phantom pregnancies. Mary had initially wanted to give birth at Windsor Castle as it was a more secure location, and she was still fearful of rebellion. But Hampton Court was considerably larger, and could accommodate the entire court and more besides. Mary stayed at the Palace awaiting the birth of the "child" for over five months, and only left because of the inhabitable state of the court being kept in the one location for so long, after which her court departed for the much smaller palace of Oatlands. Mary was succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth I, and it was Elizabeth who had the eastern kitchen built; today, this is the palaces public tea room.</p><br>
<h3>Stuart times</h3><br>
<p>On the death of Elizabeth I in 1603, the Tudor period came to an end. The Queen was succeeded by her first cousin-twice-removed, the Scottish King, James VI, who became known in England as James I of the House of Stuart.</p><br>
<p>In 1604, the palace was the site of King James meeting with representatives of the English Puritans, known as the Hampton Court Conference; while agreement with the Puritans was not reached, the meeting led to Jamess commissioning of the King James Version of the Bible.</p><br>
<p>King James was succeeded in 1625 by his son, the ill-fated Charles I. Hampton Court was to become both his palace and his prison. It was also the setting for his honeymoon with his fifteen-year-old bride, Henrietta Maria in 1625. Following King Charles&#39; execution in 1649, the palace became the property of the Commonwealth presided over by Oliver Cromwell. Unlike some other former royal properties, the palace escaped relatively unscathed. While the government auctioned much of the contents, the building was ignored.</p><br>
<p>After the Restoration, King Charles II and his successor James II visited Hampton Court but largely preferred to reside elsewhere. By current French court standards Hampton Court now appeared old-fashioned. It was in 1689, shortly after Louis XIVs court had moved permanently to Versailles, that the palaces antiquated state was addressed. England had joint monarchs, William III and his wife, Mary II. Within months of their accession they embarked on a massive rebuilding project at Hampton Court. The intention was to demolish the Tudor palace a section at a time, while replacing it with a huge modern palace in the Baroque style retaining only Henry VIII&#39;s Great Hall.</p><br>
<p>During this work, half the Tudor palace was replaced and Henry VIIIs state rooms and private apartments were both lost; the new wings around the Fountain Court contained new state apartments and private rooms, one set for the King and one for the Queen. Each suite of state rooms was accessed by a state staircase. The royal suites were of completely equal value in order to reflect William and Marys unique status as joint sovereigns. The Kings Apartments face south over the Privy Garden, the Queens east over the Fountain Garden. The suites are linked by a gallery running the length of the east façade, another reference to Versailles, where the King and Queens apartments are linked by the Galerie des Glaces. However, at Hampton Court the linking gallery is of more modest proportions and decoration. The Kings staircase was decorated with frescos by Antonio Verrio and delicate ironwork by Jean Tijou. Other artists commissioned to decorate the rooms included Grinling Gibbons, Sir James Thornhill and Jacques Rousseau; furnishings were designed by Daniel Marot.</p><br>
<p>After the death of Queen Mary, King William lost interest in the renovations, and work ceased. However, it was in Hampton Court Park in 1702 that he fell from his horse, later dying from his injuries at Kensington Palace. He was succeeded by his sister-in-law Queen Anne who continued the decoration and completion of the state apartments. On Queen Anne&#39;s death in 1714 the Stuart dynasty came to an end.</p><br>
<p>Queen Annes successor was George I; he and his son George II were the last monarchs to reside at Hampton Court. Under George II and his wife, Caroline of Ansbach, further refurbishment took place, with the architect William Kent employed to design new furnishings and decor including the Queens Staircase, (1733) and the Cumberland Suite (1737) for the Duke of Cumberland. Today, the Queen&#39;s Private Apartments are open to the public and include her bathroom and bedroom.</p><br>
<h2>Contents</h2><br>
<p>The palace houses many works of art and furnishings from the Royal Collection, mainly dating from the two principal periods of the palaces construction, the early Tudor (Renaissance) and late Stuart to early Georgian period. In September 2015, the Royal Collection recorded 542 works (only those with images) as being located at Hampton Court, mostly paintings and furniture, but also ceramics and sculpture. The full current list can be obtained from their website. The single most important work is Mantegnas Triumphs of Caesar housed in the Lower Orangery. The palace once housed the Raphael Cartoons now kept at the Victoria and Albert Museum. Their former home, the Cartoon Gallery on the south side of the Fountain Court, was designed by Christopher Wren; copies painted in the 1690s by a minor artist, Henry Cooke, are now displayed in their place. Also on display are important collections of ceramics, including numerous pieces of blue and white porcelain collected by Queen Mary II, both Chinese imports and Delftware.</p><br>
<p>Much of the original furniture dates from the late 17th and early 18th centuries, including tables by Jean Pelletier, "India back" walnut chairs by Thomas Roberts and clocks and a barometer by Thomas Tompion. Several state beds are still in their original positions, as is the Throne Canopy in the King&#39;s Privy Chamber. This room contains a crystal chandelier of circa 1700, possibly the first such in the country.</p><br>
<p>The King&#39;s Guard Chamber contains a large quantity of arms: muskets, pistols, swords, daggers, powder horns and pieces of armour arranged on the walls in decorative patterns. Bills exist for payment to a John Harris dated 1699 for an arrangement believed to be that still seen today.</p><br>
<h2>Chapel Royal</h2><br>
<p>The timber and plaster ceiling of the Chapel is considered the "most important and magnificent in Britain", but is all that remains of the Tudor decoration, after redecoration supervised by Sir Christopher Wren. The altar is framed by a massive but plain oak reredos with garlands carved by Grinling Gibbons during the reign of Queen Anne. Opposite the altar, at first-floor level, is the royal pew where the royal family would attend services apart from the general congregation seated below.</p><br>
<h2>Grounds</h2><br>
<p>The grounds as they appear today were laid out in grand style in the late 17th century. There are no authentic remains of Henry VIIIs gardens, merely a small knot garden, planted in 1924, which hints at the gardens 16th-century appearance. Today, the dominating feature of the grounds is the great landscaping scheme constructed for Sir Christopher Wrens intended new palace. From a water-bounded semicircular parterre, the length of the east front, three avenues radiate in a crows foot pattern. The central avenue, containing not a walk or a drive, but the great canal known as the Long Water, was excavated during the reign of Charles II, in 1662. The design, radical at the time, is another immediately recognizable influence from Versailles, and was indeed laid out by pupils of André Le Nôtre, Louis XIV&#39;s landscape gardener.</p><br>
<p>On the south side of the palace is the Privy Garden bounded by semi-circular wrought iron gates by Jean Tijou. This garden, originally William III&#39;s private garden, was replanted in 1992 in period style with manicured hollies and yews along a geometric system of paths.</p><br>
<p>On a raised site overlooking the Thames, is a small pavilion, the Banqueting House. This was built circa 1700, for informal meals and entertainments in the gardens rather than for the larger state dinners which would have taken place inside the palace itself. A nearby conservatory houses the "Great Vine", planted in 1769; by 1968 it had a trunk 81 inches thick and has a length of 100 feet.</p><br>
<p>The palace included apartments for the use of favoured royal friends. One such apartment is described as being in "The Pavilion and situated on the Home Park" of Hampton Court Palace. This privilege was first extended about 1817 by Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, to his friend, Lieut General James Moore, K.C., and his new bride, Miss Cecilia Watson. George IV continued this arrangement following the death of Prince Edward on 23 January 1820. The Queen continued the arrangement for the widow of General Moore, following his death on 24 April 1838. This particular apartment was used for 21 years or more and spanned three different sponsors.</p><br>
<p>A well-known curiosity of the palace&#39;s grounds is Hampton Court Maze; planted in the 1690s by George London and Henry Wise for William III. It was originally planted with hornbeam; it has been repaired latterly using many different types of hedge. there is a 3D online browser simulation of the Hampton Court Maze—see the external links section</p><br>
<p>Inspired by narrow views of a Tudor garden that can be seen through doorways in a painting, The Family of Henry VIII, hanging in the palaces Haunted Gallery, a new garden in the style of Henry VIIIs 16th-century Privy Gardens, has been designed to celebrate the anniversary of that Kings accession to the throne. Sited on the former Chapel Court Garden, it has been planted with flowers and herbs from the 16th century, and is completed by gilded heraldic beasts and bold green and white painted fences. The heraldic beasts carved by Ben Harms and Ray Gonzalez of G&H Studios include the golden lion of England, The white greyhound of Richmond, the red dragon of Wales and the white hart of Richard II, all carved from English oak. The gardens architect was Todd Langstaffe-Gowan, who collaborated with James Fox and the Gardens Team at Historic Royal Palaces.</p><br>
<p>The formal gardens and park are Grade I listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.</p><br>
<h3>King's Beasts</h3><br>
<p>There are also ten statues of heraldic animals, called the Kings Beasts, that stand on the bridge over the moat leading to the great gatehouse. Unlike the Queens Beasts in Kew Gardens, these statues represent the ancestry of King Henry VIII and his third wife Jane Seymour. The animals are: the lion of England, the Seymour lion, the Royal dragon, the black bull of Clarence, the yale of Beaufort, the white lion of Mortimer, the White Greyhound of Richmond, the Tudor dragon, the Seymour panther and the Seymour unicorn.</p><br>
<h2>Recent history</h2><br>
<p>Since the reign of King George II, no monarch has ever resided at Hampton Court. In fact, George III, from the moment of his accession, never set foot in the palace: he associated the state apartments with a humiliating scene when his grandfather had once struck him following an innocent remark.</p><br>
<p>He did however have the Great Vine planted here in 1763 and had the top two storeys of the Great Gatehouse removed in 1773.</p><br>
<p>From the 1760s, the Palace was also used to house grace and favour residents. Many of the Palace rooms were adapted to be rent free apartments, with vacant ones allocated by the Lord Chamberlain to applicants to reward past services rendered to the Crown. From the 1960s the number of new residents declined with the last admitted in the 1980s. However existing residents could continue to live there. In 2005 three remained, with none by 2017.</p><br>
<p>In 1796, the Great Hall was restored and in 1838, during the reign of Queen Victoria, the restoration was completed and the palace opened to the public. The heavy-handed restoration plan at this time reduced the Great Gatehouse (A), the palace&#39;s principal entrance, by two stories and removed the lead cupolas adorning its four towers.</p><br>
<p>On 2 September 1952, the palace was given statutory protection by being grade I listed. Other buildings and structures within the grounds are separately grade I listed, including the early 16th-century tilt yard tower (the only surviving example of the five original towers); Christopher Wren&#39;s Lion gate built for Anne and George I; and the Tudor and 17th-century perimeter walls.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the 20th century in addition to becoming a major London tourist attraction, the palace continued to house grace and favour residences given to esteemed servants and subjects of the crown. It was the elderly recipient of one such grace and favour apartment, Lady Daphne Gale, widow of General Sir Richard Gale, who caused a major fire that claimed her life and spread to the King&#39;s Apartments in 1986. This led to a new programme of restoration work which was completed in 1990.</p><br>
<p>The Royal School of Needlework moved to premises within the Palace from Princes Gate in Kensington 1987, and the Palace also houses the headquarters of Historic Royal Palaces, a charitable foundation.</p><br>
<h3>Vanderbilt influence</h3><br>
<h3>Film location</h3><br>
<p>The palace served as the location for the film A Man for All Seasons (1966), directed by Fred Zinnemann. It also appeared in the HBO miniseries John Adams (2008) where Adams was received by King George III as the first USA Ambassador to the Court of St Jamess. The palace was used in the film Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides (2011) and in Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows (2011). The palace also served as a location for the live action film of Disneys Cinderella (2015), directed by Kenneth Branagh and starring Lily James and Richard Madden.</p><br>
<p>The location was used for a performance of The Six Wives of Henry VIII by rock keyboardist Rick Wakeman in 2009. The concert was videotaped.</p><br>
<h3>2012 Olympic Games</h3><br>
<p>The palace was the venue for the Road Cycling Time Trial of the 2012 Summer Olympics and temporary structures for the event, including a set of thrones for time trialists in the medal positions, were installed in the grounds.</p><br>
<h3>500th anniversary</h3><br>
<p>In 2015 Hampton Court celebrated its 500th anniversary. The celebrations included daily dramatised historical scenes. Building at the palace began on 12 February 1515.</p><br>
<h3>Roman Catholic service</h3><br>
<p>On 9 February 2016 Vincent Nichols, the Catholic archbishop of Westminster, celebrated vespers in the Chapel Royal, the first Catholic service held at the palace for 450 years.</p><br>
<h2>Hampton Court railway station</h2><br>
<p>Served by Hampton Court railway station which is across Hampton Court Bridge.</p><br>
<p>The Palace is also served by London bus routes 111, 216, 411 and R68.</p><br>
<p>Lenin Peak  in July 2006), or Ibn Sina  Peak, rises to 7,134 metres  in Gorno-Badakhshan  on the border of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and is the second-highest point of both countries. It is considered one of the less technical 7000 m peaks in the world to climb and it has by far the most ascents of any 7000 m or higher peak on Earth, with every year seeing hundreds of mountaineers make their way to the summit. Lenin Peak is the highest mountain in the Trans-Alay Range of Central Asia, and in the Pamir Mountains in Tajikistan it is exceeded only by Ismoil Somoni Peak . It was thought to be the highest point in the Pamirs in Tajikistan until 1933, when Ismoil Somoni Peak  was climbed and found to be more than 300 metres higher. Two mountains in the Pamirs in China, Kongur Tagh  and Muztagh Ata , are higher than the Tajik summits.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>The peak was discovered in 1871 and originally named Mount Kaufmann after Konstantin Kaufman, the first Governor-General of Turkestan. In 1928, the mountain was renamed Lenin Peak after the Russian revolutionary and first leader of the Soviet Union, Vladimir Lenin. In Tajikistan, the peak was renamed again in July 2006, and today it is officially called in Tajik Qullai Abuali ibni Sino (қуллаи Абӯалӣ ибни Сино, Ibn Sina Peak or, alternatively, Avicenna Peak) after Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna).</p><br>
<p>In Kyrgyzstan, the peak is still officially called Lenin Chokusu (Ленин Чокусу, Lenin Peak). However, in October 2017, Kyrgyz president Almazbek Atambayev called for renaming the peak "Manas Peak", after the hero of the Epic of Manas. A peak named "Manas Peak" already exists in Kyrgyzstan; it is a mountain of 4,488 m in the Talas Alatau range in Talas Region.</p><br>
<p>Some sources give Achiktash as the Kyrgyz name for this 7,134 m mountain on the border with Tajikistan, but it seems that Achiktash, or more properly Achik-Tash, is the name of a plateau and a base camp at an elevation of 3,600 m on a popular northern climbing route to Lenin Peak, which starts in the southern Kyrgyz city of Osh, a day&#39;s drive north of the border.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing history and routes</h2><br>
<p>Initial exploration of this part of Central Asia occurred in the period 1774–82. Arguably the first recorded travel through the region is the involuntary journey of the slave Filipp Efremov (an ethnic Russian), who escaped from slavery in Bukhara. He crossed the Fergana valley, then via Osh, the Chigirik Pass and Terekdavan Pass he reached the Kashgar and finally came over the Karakorum. He was the first European who crossed the Alai Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Scientific expeditions to the Alai Mountains began in 1871, when Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko discovered the Trans-Alai (Zaalayskiy) Range and its main peak. The first geographical expedition which came nearest to the base of the future Lenin Peak in the early 20th century was arguably the expedition of Nikolai Leopol&#39;dovich Korzhenevskiy.</p><br>
<p>In September 1928, three mountaineers -the Germans and Karl Wien, and the Austrian - from a Soviet-German scientific expedition, made the first attempt to reach the highest point of the Trans-Alai Range, which at that time had the name Kaufman Peak.</p><br>
<p>They started climbing upstream of the Saukdara river along the South slope of Trans-Alai Range also Trans-Alay Range. From the river head they continued climbing along the Greater Saukdara Glacier towards a saddle at an elevation of 5820 m (this saddle is also known as the Krilenko Pass). On September 25, 1928 they started climbing from the saddle along the NE Ridge and at 15.30 they reached the summit. At the time, Kaufman Peak was the highest summit reached by men.</p><br>
<p>The title Lenin Peak was first applied to the highest point of the Trans-Alai Range in the same year (1928). When it was renamed after Lenin it was believed to be the highest point in the USSR.</p><br>
<p>On September 8, 1934, at 16:20 Kasian Chernuha, Vitaly Abalakov and Ivan Lukin, three members of a Soviet expedition, reached the summit at an elevation of 7,134 m. Their attempt lasted for four days with three camps (5700 m, 6500 m and 7000 m). The expedition started climbing from the Achik-Tash canyon in the Alai valley. The summit attempt itself was started along the Western ice slope of the Lenin glacier. They continued climbing along the North Face, passing the rocks that were later given the name Lipkin&#39;s Rocks. At the end of the second day they reached the crest of the NE ridge at an elevation of about 6500 m. During the following day and a half they climbed along the NE Ridge and, utterly exhausted, reached the summit.</p><br>
<p>The third ascent was three years later, in 1937, when eight Soviet climbers under the direction of Lev Barkhash reached the summit by the same route. This was at the beginning of mass political repressions in the Soviet Union and many of the most prominent Soviet climbers, including Lev Barkhash, were brought to trial.</p><br>
<p>Subsequent attempts to climb Lenin Peak could not begin until 1950, when the USSR began to recover from the Second World War. On August 14, 1950, twelve climbers (V. Aksenov, K, Zaporojchenko, Y. Izrael, V. Kovalev, A. Kormshikov, Y. Maslov, E. Nagel, V. Narishkin, V. Nikonov, V. Nozdryuhin, I. Rojkov) under the direction of Vladimir Racek reached the summit for the fourth time.</p><br>
<p>All three Soviet expeditions including Racec&#39;s expedition of 1950 were by almost the same route via the NE Ridge.</p><br>
<p>The route which now is known as the classic route, via the Razdelnaya Peak and NW Ridge, was first climbed in 1954 by the team of Soviet climbers under the direction of V. Kovalev (P. Karpov, E. Nagel, V. Narishkin, V. Nozdryuhin).</p><br>
<p>In 1960, a group of eight Soviet climbers made a successful direct climb along the North Face (15.08.1960).</p><br>
<p>There are 16 established routes, nine on the southern side and seven on the northern slopes. The peak is quite popular with climbers due to its easy access and some uncomplicated routes. However, the peak is not without its share of disasters. In 1974, an entire team of eight female climbers died high on the mountain in a storm. An avalanche triggered by an earthquake killed 43 climbers in 1990.</p><br>
<p>As it is now, considering the existing infrastructure and BC/ABC locations, there are three most attractive routes from the North (approximately indicated on the Scheme): Lipkin&#39;s rocks route and NE Ridge; the classic North Face route; the route via Razdelnaya Peak and the NW Ridge.</p><br>
<p>The Sangre de Cristo Range, called the East Range locally in the San Luis Valley, is a high, rugged and narrow mountain range of the Rocky Mountains in southern Colorado in the United States, running north and south along the east side of the Rio Grande Rift. The mountains extend southeast from Poncha Pass for about 75 miles  through south-central Colorado to La Veta Pass, approximately 20 miles  west of Walsenburg, and form a high ridge separating the San Luis Valley on the west from the watershed of the Arkansas River on the east. The Sangre de Cristo Range rises over 7,000 feet above the valleys and plains to the west and northeast.</p><br>
<p>According to the USGS, the range is the northern part of the larger Sangre de Cristo Mountains, which extend through northern New Mexico.</p><br>
<p>Usage of the terms "Sangre de Cristo Range" and "Sangre de Cristo Mountains" is varied; however, this article discusses only the mountains between Poncha Pass and La Veta Pass.</p><br>
<h2>Notable peaks</h2><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Most of the range is shared by two National Forests, which abut along the range divide. Most of the northeast (Arkansas River) side is located within the San Isabel National Forest, while most of the southwest (San Luis Valley) side is included in the Rio Grande National Forest. The central part of the range is designated as the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness. The Great Sand Dunes National Park sits on the southwestern flank of the range at the edge of the San Luis Valley. The range divide is traversed by no paved roads, only by four-wheel drive and foot trails over Hayden Pass, Hermit Pass, Music Pass, Medano Pass, and Mosca Pass.</p><br>
<p>The highest peak in the range, located in the south, is Blanca Peak (14,345 feet/4,372 m); it is flanked by three other fourteeners: Little Bear Peak, Mount Lindsey, and Ellingwood Point. Other well-known peaks are the fourteeners of the Crestone group: Kit Carson Mountain, Crestone Peak, Crestone Needle, and Humboldt Peak. Two sub-peaks of Kit Carson Mountain, Challenger Point and Columbia Point, are named in memory of the crews of the Space Shuttle Challenger and the Space Shuttle Columbia.</p><br>
<p>The range is also home to many high peaks in the 13,000 to 14,000 foot (3,900-4,300 m) range.</p><br>
<p>See the Sangre de Cristo Mountains article for other noteworthy summits in the greater range.</p><br>
<h2>History and economy</h2><br>
<p>In 1719 the Spanish explorer Antonio Valverde y Cosio named the Sangre de Cristo ("Blood of Christ") mountains after being impressed by the reddish hue of the snowy peaks at sunrise, alpenglow. Today tourism is the main economic activity.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Sangre de Cristos are fault-block mountains similar to the Teton Range in Wyoming and the Wasatch Range in Utah. There are major fault lines running along both the east and west sides of the range and, in places, cutting through the range. Like all fault block mountain ranges the Sangre de Cristo&#39;s lack foothills which means the highest peaks rise abruptly from the valleys to the east and west, rising 7,000 feet in only a few miles in some places. The mountains were pushed up around 5 million years ago, basically as one large mass of rock. The Sangre de Cristo range is still being uplifted today as faults in the area remain active.</p><br>
<p>On the west side is the San Luis Valley, a portion of the Rio Grande Rift. On the southeast side is the Raton Basin, a quiet but still active volcanic field. On the northeast side are the Wet Mountains and the Front Range, areas of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks formed during the Colorado orogeny some 1.7 billion years ago and then uplifted more recently during the Laramide orogeny.</p><br>
<p>The Blanca Massif is also Precambrian rock, while most of the rest of the Sangres is composed of younger Permian-Pennsylvanian (about 250-million-year-old) rock, a mix of sedimentary conglomerates, shales, and igneous intrusions. These sedimentary rocks originated as sediment eroded from the Ancestral Rocky Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Vancouver Island is in the northeastern Pacific Ocean, just off the coast of Canada. It is part of the Canadian province of British Columbia. The island is 460 km in length, 100 km in width at its widest point, and 32,134 km&sup2; in area. It is the largest island on the West Coast of North America.</p><br>
<p>The southern part of Vancouver Island is the only part of British Columbia or Western Canada to lie south of the 49th Parallel, along with most of the southern Gulf Islands and minor offshore islands. This area has one of the warmest climates in Canada, and since the mid-1990s has been mild enough in a few areas to grow subtropical Mediterranean crops such as olives and lemons.</p><br>
<p>Vancouver Island has a population of 759,366 according to the Canada 2011 Census. Nearly half of that figure (344,630) live in the metropolitan area of Greater Victoria. Other notable cities and towns on Vancouver Island include Nanaimo, Port Alberni, Parksville, Courtenay, and Campbell River. Victoria, the capital city of British Columbia, is located on the island, but the larger city of Vancouver is not – it is on the North American mainland, across the Strait of Georgia from Nanaimo.</p><br>
<p>Vancouver Island has been the homeland to many indigenous peoples for thousands of years. The island was explored by British and Spanish expeditions in the late 18th century. It was named Quadras and Vancouvers Island in commemoration of the friendly negotiations held in 1792 by Spanish commander of the Nootka Sound settlement, Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, and by British naval captain George Vancouver, during the Nootka Crisis. Quadra&#39;s name was eventually dropped from the name. It is one of several North American locations named after George Vancouver, who explored the Pacific Northwest coast between 1791 and 1794.</p><br>
<p>Vancouver Island is the worlds 43rd largest island, Canadas 11th largest island, and Canada&#39;s second most populous island after the Island of Montreal. It is the largest Pacific island anywhere east of New Zealand.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Indigenous peoples</h3><br>
<p>Vancouver Island has been the homeland to many indigenous peoples for thousands of years. The groupings, by language, are the Kwakwakawakw, Nuu-chah-nulth, and various Coast Salish peoples. Kwakwakawakw territory includes northern and northwestern Vancouver Island and adjoining areas of the mainland, the Nuu-chah-nulth span most of the west coast, while the Coast Salish cover the southeastern Island and southernmost extremities along the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Their cultures are connected to the natural resources abundant in the area.</p><br>
<h4>Kwakwaka'wakw</h4><br>
<p>The Kwakwakawakw today number about 5,500, who live in British Columbia on northern Vancouver Island and the mainland. They are also known as Kwakiutl in English, from one of their tribes, but they prefer their autonym Kwakwakawakw. Their indigenous language, part of the Wakashan family, is Kwakwala. The name Kwakwakawakw means "speakers of Kwakwala". The language is now spoken by less than 5% of the population—about 250 people. Today 17 separate tribes make up the Kwakwakawakw. Some Kwakwakawakw groups are now extinct. Kwakwala is a Northern Wakashan language, a grouping shared with Haisla, Heiltsuk and Wuikyala. Kwakwakawakw centres of population on Vancouver Island include communities such as Fort Rupert, Alert Bay and Quatsino, The Kwakwakawakw tradition of the potlatch was banned by the federal government of Canada in 1885, but has been revived in recent decades.</p><br>
<h4>Nuu-chah-nulth</h4><br>
<p>The Nuu-chah-nulth (pronounced, or approximately "new-cha-nulth") are indigenous peoples in Canada. Their traditional home is on the west coast of Vancouver Island. In pre-contact and early post-contact times, the number of nations was much greater, but as in the rest of the region, smallpox and other consequences of contact resulted in the disappearance of some groups, and the absorption of others into neighbouring groups.</p><br>
<p>They were among the first Pacific peoples north of California to come into contact with Europeans, as the Spanish, Americans and British attempted to secure control of Pacific Northwest and the trade in otter pelts, with Nootka Sound becoming a focus of these rivalries. The Nuu-chah-nulth speak a Southern Wakashan language and are closely related to the Makah of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State and Ditidaht.</p><br>
<h4>Coast Salish</h4><br>
<p>The Coast Salish are the largest of the southern groups. They are a loose grouping of many tribes with numerous distinct cultures and languages. On Vancouver Island, Coast Salish peoples territory traditionally spans from the northern limit of the Gulf of Georgia on the inside of Vancouver Island and covering most of southern Vancouver Island. Distinct nations within the Coast Salish peoples on Vancouver Island include the Chemainus, the Comox of the Comox Valley area, the Cowichan of the Cowichan Valley, the Esquimalt, the Saanich of the Saanich Peninsula, the Songhees of the Victoria area and Snuneymuxw in the Nanaimo area.</p><br>
<h3>European exploration</h3><br>
<p>Europeans began to explore the island in 1774, when rumours of Russian fur traders caused Spain to send a number of expeditions to assert its long-held claims to the Pacific Northwest. The first expedition was that of the Santiago, under the command of Juan José Pérez Hernández. In 1775, a second Spanish expedition under the Spanish Peruvian captain Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra was sent. By 1776 Spanish exploration had reached Bucareli Bay including the mouth of the Columbia River between Oregon and Washington, and Sitka Sound.</p><br>
<p>Vancouver Island came to the attention of Britain after the third voyage of Captain James Cook, who spent a month during 1778 at Nootka Sound, on the islands western coast. Cook claimed it for Great Britain. The islands rich fur trading potential led the fur-trader John Meares to set up a single-building trading post near the native village of Yuquot (Friendly Cove), at the entrance to Nootka Sound. The building was removed by the end of 1788.</p><br>
<p>The island was further explored by Spain in 1789 with Esteban José Martínez, who established the settlement of Yuquot and the artillery battery of Fort San Miguel at Friendly Cove, which Spain called Puerto de San Lorenzo de Nuca. This was to be the only Spanish settlement in what would later be Canada. Asserting their claim of exclusive sovereignty and navigation rights, the Spanish force seized the Portuguese-flagged British ships. The two nations came close to war in the ensuing Nootka Crisis, but the issues were resolved peacefully with the first Nootka Convention in 1790, in which both countries recognized the other&#39;s rights to the area. The terms of the convention called for Spain to turn over to Britain the buildings and land that had been seized in 1789. For this purpose the British Naval Captain George Vancouver was sent to Nootka Sound in 1792. His Spanish counterpart in the negotiations was Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, who was commandant of Santa Cruz de Nuca in 1792. Vancouver had sailed as a midshipman with Cook. The negotiations between Vancouver and Bodega y Quadra ended in a deadlock with nothing resolved. Vancouver insisted the entire Spanish establishment be turned over, but Bodega y Quadra held that there were no buildings seized in 1789 and the only possible land was a tiny and useless cove nearby. The two decided to refer the entire matter back to their respective governments. The friendly meeting between Bodega y Quadra and Vancouver led the former to propose that the island be named after both: "Quadra and Vancouver Island", which became the original name. While we know this island today as "Vancouver Island", the English explorer had not intentionally meant to name such a large body of land solely after himself. In his September 1792 dispatch log report for the British Admiralty, Captain Vancouver reveals that his decision here was rather meant to honour a request by Bodega y Quadra that Vancouver:</p><br>
<p>Bodega y Quadra wrote, however, that it was Vancouver who made the suggestion of combining their names to designate some geographical feature.</p><br>
<p>In 1792, the Spanish explorer Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and his crew were the first Europeans to circumnavigate Vancouver Island. On April 8, 1806, Captain John DWolf of Bristol, Rhode Island, sailed the Juno to Newettee, a small inlet in the northwestern promontory of Vancouvers Island. The Captain described Newette as one of the southernmost harbors frequented by American fur traders at lat. 51 degrees N. and long. 128 degrees. He relates that since Captain Robert Gray of Tiverton, Rhode Island, had sailed the Columbia River in 1792, the trade of the Northwest coast had been almost entirely in the hands of Boston merchants, so much so that the natives called all traders "Boston Men."</p><br>
<p>The newly discovered "Quadras and Vancouvers Island" was the most prominent name on maps of the coast, and appeared on most British, French and Spanish maps of the period. But as Spanish interests in the region dwindled, so did the use of Quadras name. The Hudsons Bay Company played a major part in the transition; by 1824 Vancouvers Island&#39; had become the usual designation in its correspondence for the island. A quarter of a century later, Vancouver Island had become such a well-known geographical feature that the founding of the Colony of Vancouver Island in 1849 gave this name full official status. Period references to "Vancouver" referred to Vancouver Island until the naming of the city of Vancouver in 1885.</p><br>
<h3>British settlement</h3><br>
<p>Shortly thereafter, in 1846, the Oregon Treaty was signed by the British and the USA to settle the question of the USA Oregon Territory borders. It awarded all of Vancouver Island to Britain, despite a portion of the island lying south of the 49th parallel. In 1849, the Colony of Vancouver Island was established. Following the brief governorship of Richard Blanshard, James Douglas, Chief Factor of the Hudson&#39;s Bay post, assumed the role in 1851.</p><br>
<p>The first British settlement on the island was a Hudson&#39;s Bay Company post, Fort Camosack, founded in 1843, and later renamed Fort Victoria. Fort Victoria became an important base during the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in 1858, and the burgeoning town was incorporated as Victoria in 1862. Victoria became the capital of the colony of Vancouver Island, then retained that status when the island was amalgamated with the mainland in 1866. A British naval base, including a large shipyard and a naval hospital, was established at Esquimalt, in 1865 and eventually taken over by the Canadian military.</p><br>
<p>The economic situation of the colony declined following the Cariboo Gold Rush of 1861–1862, and pressure grew for amalgamation of the colony with the mainland colony of British Columbia (which had been established in 1858). The colony&#39;s third and last governor, Sir Arthur Kennedy, oversaw the union of the two colonies in 1866.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Vancouver Island is located in the southwestern corner of the province of British Columbia. It is separated from the mainland of British Columbia by Johnstone Strait and Queen Charlotte Strait on the north and northeast, and by the Strait of Georgia on the southeast, which along with the Strait of Juan de Fuca along its southwest separate it from the United States (the Straits of Georgia and Juan de Fuca are now officially also part of the Salish Sea, which includes Puget Sound as well). West of the island is the open Pacific Ocean, while to its north is Queen Charlotte Sound.</p><br>
<p>The Vancouver Island Ranges run most of the length of the island, dividing it into a wet and rugged west coast and a drier, more rolling east coast. The highest point in these ranges and on the island is the Golden Hinde, at 2,195 m. Located near the centre of Vancouver Island in 2,500 km&sup2; Strathcona Provincial Park, it is part of a group of peaks that include the only glaciers on the island, the largest of which is the Comox Glacier. The west coast shoreline is rugged and in many places mountainous, characterized by its many fjords, bays, and inlets. The interior of the island has many lakes (Kennedy Lake, north of Ucluelet, is the largest) and rivers.</p><br>
<h3>Rivers</h3><br>
<p>There are a number of rivers draining the island, some of which though short are large in volume. Among the more notable rivers are the Somass River in the Alberni Valley, the Nimpkish River in the North Island region, the Englishman River near Nanaimo, and the Cowichan River whose basin forms the Cowichan Valley region in the South Island region.</p><br>
<h3>Major centres</h3><br>
<p>Vancouver Islands major population centre and only metropolitan area is Greater Victoria. There are also six census agglomeration areas as defined by Statistics Canada, including Nanaimo which has a population over 100,000 and as of 2016 is eligible to become a CMA. These metropolitan and agglomeration areas populations in 2016 were as follows:</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The climate is the mildest in Canada, with temperatures on the coast even in January being usually above 0 &deg;C.</p><br>
<p>In summer, the warmest days usually achieve a maximum of 28 -. However, the rain shadow effect of the islands mountains, as well as the mountains of Washingtons Olympic Peninsula, creates wide variation in precipitation. The west coast is considerably wetter than the east coast. Average annual precipitation ranges from 6,650 mm at Henderson Lake on the west coast (making it the wettest place in North America) to only 640 mm at the driest recording station in the provincial capital of Victoria on the southeast coasts Saanich Peninsula. Precipitation is heaviest in the autumn and winter. Snow is rare at low altitudes but is common on the islands mountaintops in winter.</p><br>
<p>A notable feature of Vancouver Island is the extension of summer dryness to latitudes as high as 50°N. Only in the extreme north of the island near Port Hardy is the rainfall of the driest summer month as much as one fifth that of the wettest months from November to March. West coasts of other continents at similar latitudes have a practically even distribution of rainfall through the year.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Vancouver Island is mostly made up of volcanic and sedimentary rock which was formed offshore on the now disappeared Kula oceanic plate. Around 55 million years ago, a microplate of the Kula Plate subducted below the North American continental margin with great strain. A volcanic arc on the surface of the Kula Plate was thus accreted and fused onto the western edge of North America. These terranes were subjected to extreme warping from continued subduction of the Kula plate, leading to the formation of the distorted Insular Mountains. Much of the central mountainous region around Strathcona Park is part of the Karmutsen Formation, which is a sequence of tholeiitic pillow basalts and breccias. Since Vancouver Island has become an accretionary wedge on the North American continent, the Kula Plate has fully subducted beneath it and the remnants of the Farallon Plate, the Juan de Fuca Plate, are now subducting below the island. This process has led to Vancouver Island being one of the most seismically active regions in Canada. The subduction zone off the coast of the island forms a section of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The area has been known to host megathrust earthquakes in the past, the last occurring in 1700. In 1946, the Forbidden Plateau in the east of the Vancouver Island Ranges was the epicentre of an earthquake that registered 7.3 on the Richter magnitude scale, the strongest ever recorded on land in Canada.</p><br>
<p>Vancouver Island was the location of the observation of the episodic tremor and slip seismic phenomenon.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Vancouver Island lies in the temperate rainforest biome. On the southern and eastern portions of the island, this is characterized by Douglas-fir, western red cedar, arbutus (or madrone), Garry oak, salal, Oregon-grape, and manzanita; moreover, Vancouver Island is the location where the Douglas-fir was first recorded by Archibald Menzies; Vancouver Island is also the location where some of the tallest Douglas fir were recorded. This southeastern portion of the island is the most heavily populated region of Vancouver Island and a major area for recreation. The northern, western, and most of the central portions of the island are home to the coniferous "big trees" associated with British Columbia&#39;s coast — western hemlock, western red cedar, pacific silver fir, yellow cedar, Douglas-fir, grand fir, Sitka spruce, and western white pine. It is also characterised by bigleaf maple, red alder, sword fern, and red huckleberry.</p><br>
<p>The fauna of Vancouver Island is similar to that found on the mainland coast, with some notable exceptions and additions. For example, grizzly bears, mountain goats, moose, coyotes, foxes, skunks, porcupines, chipmunks, and numerous species of small mammals, while plentiful on the mainland, are absent from Vancouver Island. The island does support most of Canadas Roosevelt elk, however, and several mammal species and subspecies, such as the Vancouver Island marmot and the Vancouver Island wolf, are unique to the island. The islands rivers, lakes, and coastal regions are renowned for their fisheries of trout, salmon, and Steelhead. It has the most concentrated population of cougars in North America. There are also black bears.</p><br>
<p>After near-total extirpation by fur traders in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) were protected by international treaty in 1911. Despite protection, the remnant population off Vancouver Island died out with the last sea otter taken near Kyuquot in 1929. From 1969 to 1972, 89 sea otters were flown or shipped from Alaska to the west coast of Vancouver Island. This population expanded to over 3,000, and their range on the island&#39;s west coast expanded from Cape Scott in the north to Barkley Sound to the south.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<h3>Technology</h3><br>
<p>Within the island&#39;s largest city, Victoria, there is a significant IT and technology industry. According to the Victoria Advanced Technology Council website, over 800 technology companies operate in the Victoria area, with combined annual revenues of $1.95 billion.</p><br>
<p>High Speed Internet is delivered to the island by Shaw Communications, Telus, and various local providers with their own networks. Wireless Internet connections can be found all over the Island, many free for public use.</p><br>
<p>While the Island does generate much of its own power at several hydroelectric stations, increased demand required the construction of several high voltage power cables, both HVDC and AC, connecting to the Canadian Mainland. See Powerlines connecting Vancouver Island with Canadian Mainland.</p><br>
<h3>Logging</h3><br>
<p>Outside of Victoria, Vancouver Island&#39;s economy is largely dominated by the forestry industry. Many of the logging operations are for export, although, historically, were for sawn lumber and pulp and paper operations. Recently, rotations are much shorter than the historical 80 years. Logging operations involving old-growth forests such as those found in Clayoquot Sound are controversial and have gained international attention through the efforts of activists and environmental organizations. Another source of controversy all over the Island are logging operations occurring in community watersheds. This is happening for two primary reasons: old-growth forests are nearly all cut, and communities have little recourse to protect their watersheds because the province of BC has no legislation giving communities the right to protect their watersheds.</p><br>
<h3>Fishing</h3><br>
<p>Fishing plays a large role in the lives of many islanders. Commercial fishing vessels operate out of the island&#39;s ports and harbours, and coastal fish farms produce many tons of Pacific salmon yearly.</p><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<p>In recent years the government of British Columbia has engaged in an advertising program to draw more tourists to beach resorts in places such as Tofino and Ucluelet. Sport fishing, whale-watching, hiking, SCUBA diving, surfing, and skiing are just a few things for which tourists visit Vancouver Island. Visitors also come to see Victoria&#39;s nineteenth-century architecture, and the many villages which line the coast such Cowichan Bay, Chemainus, and Qualicum Beach.</p><br>
<h3>Food products</h3><br>
<p>Consumer food products companies also exists in the various cities and towns on Vancouver Island. Bakeries, dairies, food processing plants, breweries, wineries, of varying size and scope are found all along the island. Some of these organizations have international customer reach.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Vancouver Island is home to a handful of universities, several trade-schools and colleges, hundreds of public schools, and a few dozen private schools (including Montessori and Waldorf schools).</p><br>
<h3>Universities</h3><br>
<p>University of Victoria</p><br>
<p>Vancouver Island University (formerly Malaspina University-College)</p><br>
<p>Royal Roads University</p><br>
<h3>Colleges</h3><br>
<p>Camosun College, Saanich</p><br>
<p>North Island College</p><br>
<h3>Public school districts</h3><br>
<p>There are 11 school districts on Vancouver Island with several elementary, junior high, and high schools in each. Three school districts are in the Greater Victoria area and the other eight cover the rest of the island to the north. All public schooling falls under the jurisdiction of the British Columbia Ministry of Education.</p><br>
<h3>Private schools</h3><br>
<p>St. Michael&#39;s University School, Victoria, with campuses in Oak Bay and Saanich</p><br>
<p>Glenlyon Norfolk, Victoria</p><br>
<p>St. Margaret&#39;s School, Victoria (limited to female students)</p><br>
<p>Brentwood College, Mill Bay</p><br>
<p>Shawnigan Lake</p><br>
<p>Queen Margaret&#39;s School, Duncan</p><br>
<p>Brookes Shawnigan Lake</p><br>
<p>Sunrise Waldorf School, Duncan</p><br>
<p>Island Oak High School, Duncan</p><br>
<p>Maria Montessori Academy, Victoria, located in Gordon Head</p><br>
<p>Selkirk Montessori School, Victoria, located at the Selkirk Waterway</p><br>
<p>Lester B. Pearson College of the Pacific, Metchosin</p><br>
<p>St. Joseph&#39;s Chemainus Catholic Elementary School, Chemainus</p><br>
<p>Duncan Christian School, Duncan</p><br>
<p>Nanaimo Christian School, Nanaimo</p><br>
<p>Pacific Christian School, Victoria</p><br>
<p>Phil and Jennie Gaglardi Academy (formerly Comox Valley Christian School), Comox</p><br>
<p>Aspengrove School, Nanaimo</p><br>
<p>St. Joseph&#39;s Catholic Elementary School, Victoria</p><br>
<p>St. Patrick&#39;s Catholic Elementary School, Victoria</p><br>
<p>St. Andrew&#39;s Regional High School, Victoria</p><br>
<p>Queen of Angels, Duncan</p><br>
<p>John Paul II, Port Alberni</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<h3>Sea</h3><br>
<p>Marine transport is very important to Vancouver Island for access to the mainland of British Columbia and Washington. There are no bridges connecting the island to the mainland, although the idea of building one has been brought up many times. Major technical issues and cost are the largest barriers to a bridge currently though exact public support for the idea is not currently known. The only vehicle access to Vancouver Island is by ferry. BC Ferries, Washington State Ferries and Black Ball Transport Inc. operate the seven vehicle ferry routes to the island.</p><br>
<p>BC Ferries</p><br>
<p>Tsawwassen (38 km south of Vancouver) – Swartz Bay (32 km north of Victoria)</p><br>
<p>Tsawwassen – Duke Point (13 km south of Nanaimo)</p><br>
<p>Horseshoe Bay (19 km northwest of Vancouver) – Departure Bay (3 km north of downtown Nanaimo)</p><br>
<p>Gulf Islands – Swartz Bay</p><br>
<p>Powell River – Comox</p><br>
<p>Port Hardy – Prince Rupert</p><br>
<p>Washington State Ferries</p><br>
<p>Anacortes, Washington – Sidney</p><br>
<p>Black Ball Transport</p><br>
<p>Port Angeles, Washington – Victoria</p><br>
<p>Passenger-only service</p><br>
<p>In addition, there is passenger-only ferry services from the mainland to Vancouver Island:</p><br>
<p>Victoria Clipper (Seattle, Washington – Victoria)</p><br>
<p>In the past, several private operators have run ferries between Nanaimo and Vancouver (most recently by HarbourLynx). Despite the operations repeatedly going bankrupt, there is still popular interest and ongoing discussion regarding re-establishing service between Nanaimo and Vancouver, but no signs that operations are imminent.</p><br>
<h3>Rail</h3><br>
<p>The Island Corridor Foundation (ICF), a federally registered charity, was established in 2006 for the purposes of owning and managing the former Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway (E&N) Corridor on Vancouver Island. The ICF has established a contract with Southern Rail of Vancouver Island (SVI) to move all rail freight on the Island and to and from the mainland. SVI is a private commercial rail company and subsidiary of Southern Rail of British Columbia, a short line rail operator that is part of the Washington Transportation Group. SVI assumed operating control from RailAmerica in July 2006 and offers general freight service only on the north Nanaimo to South Duncan segment of the Victoria–Courtenay main line (called the Victoria Subdivision by the railroad). The Port Alberni branch line (called the Port Alberni Subdivision by the railroad) has been out of service since late 2001. Passenger service, which had been operated by Via Rail under contract, was halted in 2011 after it was identified that a portion of the line failed to meet operating requirements for passenger service. Since then, there have been ongoing efforts to secure funding from various levels of government to complete the necessary repairs, but the decision remains open.</p><br>
<p>Western Forest Products operates the Englewood Railway which is Canadas last logging railway, running from Woss to Beaver Cove on the northern end of the island. The former Canadian National Railway line running from Victoria to the Cowichan Valley was abandoned in the late 1980s/early 1990s, and the former grade between Victoria and Sooke is now the multi-use Galloping Goose Regional Trail. The BC Forest Discovery Centre has a narrow gauge railway winding around the park, and the Alberni Pacific Railway operates a tour train during the summer from the restored E&N Railway station in Port Alberni to the McLeans Mill on former E&N Railway trackage that is now owned by the ICF.</p><br>
<h3>Road</h3><br>
<p>There is one major north-south highway system on the island, which runs along the eastern side. It begins in Victoria as Highway 1 which is part of the Trans-Canada Highway system as far as Nanaimo.</p><br>
<p>There, Highway 19 takes over and continues to Port Hardy. The route is a patchwork of two-, four-, and six-lane roadways between Victoria and Port Hardy. The engineering characteristics and traffic control systems of the roadway vary widely from one city or district to the next and include the following variations:</p><br>
<p>Trans-Canada Highway:</p><br>
<p>Congested, heavily signalized four-lane urban core streets with heavy pedestrian activity in Victoria and Duncan.</p><br>
<p>Short four- to six-lane freeways with interchanges just west of Victoria and just south of Nanaimo.</p><br>
<p>A paved but treacherous two-lane to three-lane winding mountain arterial road through the Malahat pass that is subject to frequent accidents and closures.</p><br>
<p>A moderate to heavily signalized four-lane divided arterial road from Mill Bay to Nanaimo (interrupted by the Duncan urban-core bottleneck).</p><br>
<p>Highway 19:</p><br>
<p>A moderate to heavily signalized bypass called the Nanaimo Parkway.</p><br>
<p>A lightly signalized four-lane divided arterial road from the Parkway to Parksville.</p><br>
<p>A stretch of four-lane high-speed freeway from Parksville to Campbell River.</p><br>
<p>A moderate-speed two-lane arterial highway north from Campbell River to Port Hardy.</p><br>
<p>Without a "fixed link" to the BC mainland, there is little probability of substantial improvements in the mobility characteristics of some of the more congested or heavily signalized sections of the Island Trans-Canada Highway or the Nanaimo Parkway. Proposals have been made for this kind of link for over a century. Because of the extreme depth and soft seabed of the Georgia Strait, and the potential for seismic activity, a bridge or tunnel would face monumental engineering, safety, and environmental challenges at a prohibitive cost.</p><br>
<p>Another major north-south route is Highway 17 a four-lane divided highway that has a mix of interchanges and traffic lights. It connects Victoria with the Saanich Peninsula, terminating the Vancouver Island portion of its route at the Swartz Bay Ferry Terminal.</p><br>
<p>The main east-west routes are mostly two-lane but are generally free of the congestion seen on some of the four-lane highways. They comprise the following:</p><br>
<p>Highway 4 between Qualicum Beach and Tofino</p><br>
<p>Highway 14 between Greater Victoria and Port Renfrew</p><br>
<p>Highway 18 between Duncan and Lake Cowichan</p><br>
<p>Highway 28 between Campbell River and Gold River; and</p><br>
<p>Highway 30 between Port McNeill and Port Alice.</p><br>
<p>Vancouver Island is also well served by secondary routes, a growing number of which have efficient roundabouts in place of the traffic lights that can back up traffic on the main highway routes. Numerous active and decommissioned logging and forest service roads provide access into the back country.</p><br>
<p>Many communities are served by public and private transit. Greater Victoria is one of the few places in North America where double-decker buses are used in the regular public transit system. Tofino Bus All Island Express serves all major cities on Vancouver Island including Greyhound stations.</p><br>
<h3>Air</h3><br>
<p>Victoria International Airport (YYJ)</p><br>
<p>Victoria Airport is the major airport on Vancouver Island. In 2010, it was the 9th busiest airport in Canada in terms of passenger movements (1,464,420). Six major carriers (Air Canada, United Airlines, Horizon Air, Delta Air Lines (2016–), Pacific Coastal Airlines and WestJet) offer a variety of direct flights of short and medium distance including to and from Seattle, San Francisco, Calgary, Edmonton, Vancouver, and Toronto. Victoria International also has seasonal service to Puerto Vallarta, Cancun, Las Vegas, and Honolulu.</p><br>
<p>CFB Comox (YQQ)</p><br>
<p>CFB Comox/Comox Valley Airport is a shared military and civilian airport. In 2010 the Comox Valley Airport was the second busiest airport on Vancouver Island in terms of passenger movements (291,910). It offers direct flights to Calgary, Edmonton, Vancouver, and Campbell River several times daily, as well as Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, on a weekly basis through WestJet.</p><br>
<p>Nanaimo Airport (YCD)</p><br>
<p>Nanaimo Airport has flights with Air Canada Jazz to Vancouver and Calgary, Westjet Airlines to Calgary, Island Express Air to Victoria and Abbotsford. A recently installed (as of February 2010) instrument landing system and runway extension has improved the capacity, safety, and punctuality of flights. There are more improvements slated for completion March 2011.</p><br>
<p>Qualicum Beach Airport (XQU), Tofino Airport (YAZ), Campbell River Airport (YBL) and Port Hardy Airport (YZT)</p><br>
<p>Qualicum Beach, Tofino, Campbell River and Port Hardy have small airports capable of handling private aircraft and small commercial jets.</p><br>
<p>Harbour Airports and Heliports</p><br>
<p>Floatplane and helicopter traffic to and from Victorias Inner Harbour (YWH) accounted for 261,712 passengers in 2010, making it the third busiest airport on Vancouver Island. Nanaimo Harbour (ZNA) also operates a busy water aerodrome. Much of the floatplane traffic is downtown-to-downtown service between these two and Vancouver Harbour, the primary carriers being Harbour Air, West Coast Air, and Baxter Aviation. Harbour Air also flies to other areas around Vancouver, service to Seattles Lake Union is provided by Kenmore Air, and Orca Airways runs flights between Vancouver and Tofino Harbour. These carriers make several daily scheduled flights, weather permitting. Helicopter service is provided by Helijet in Victoria and various private operators elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>The Palace of Versailles , or simply Versailles , is a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France. It is now open as a museum and is a very popular tourist attraction.</p><br>
<p>When the château was built, the community of Versailles was a small village dating from the 11th century. Today, however, it is a wealthy suburb of Paris, some 20 km southwest of the centre of the French capital. Versailles was the seat of political power in the Kingdom of France from 1682, when King Louis XIV moved the royal court from Paris, until the royal family was forced to return to the capital in October 1789, within three months after the beginning of the French Revolution. Versailles is therefore famous not only as a building, but as a symbol of the system of absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime.</p><br>
<p>Especially under Louis XIV, the whole senior nobility were pressured to spend large amounts of time at Versailles, as a form of political control. Louis XIV evolved a rigid routine of court life as a performance, much of which took place in front of large groups of people, at some points in the day including tourists. Building the château and maintaining the court there was phenomenally expensive, but did a good deal to establish the dominance of French style and taste in the whole of Europe, giving French luxury manufacturing advantages that long outlasted the fall of the Ancien Régime.</p><br>
<p>Louis XIVs expansion of the building was begun around 1661, with Louis Le Vau as architect. It was not completed until about 1715, having been worked on by architects including François dOrbay, Charles Le Brun (interiors especially), Jules Hardouin-Mansart and Robert de Cotte. André Le Nôtre began the gardens and structures in them. There were a range of satellite buildings around the grounds. While the main château building remains essentially intact, though without much of its contents, some of these other buildings have been destroyed.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Architectural history</h3><br>
<h4>17th century</h4><br>
<p>First built by Louis XIII in 1624 as a hunting lodge of brick and stone, and designed by the architect Jacques Lemercier, the edifice was enlarged into a royal palace by Louis XIV. The first phase of the expansion (c. 1661–1678) was designed and supervised by the architect Louis Le Vau. It culminated in the addition of three new wings of stone (the enveloppe), which encompassed Louis XIIIs original building on the north, south, and west (the garden side). André-Charles Boulle, the most famous French cabinetmaker and the preeminent artist in the field of marquetry, was engaged in 1669 to create ouvrages de peinture, and Boulle was employed for many years at Versailles, where the mirrored walls, floors of wood mosaic, inlaid paneling and marquetry in the Cabinet du Dauphin (1682–1686) was regarded as his most remarkable work. The rooms were dismantled in the late 18th century and their unfashionable art broken up. More recently, a partial inventory of the Grand Dauphins decorations at the Palace of Versailles has come to light at the National Archives in Paris.</p><br>
<p>After Le Vaus death in 1670, the work was taken over and completed by his assistant François dOrbay. Charles Le Brun designed and supervised the elaborate interior decoration, and André Le Nôtre landscaped the extensive Gardens of Versailles. Le Brun and Le Nôtre collaborated on the numerous fountains, and Le Brun supervised the design and installation of countless statues.</p><br>
<p>During the second phase of expansion of the mansion (c. 1678–1715), two enormous wings north and south of the wings flanking the Cour Royale (Royal Courtyard) were added by the architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart. He also replaced Le Vaus large terrace, facing the garden on the west, with what became the most famous room of the palace, the Hall of Mirrors. Mansart also built the Petites Écuries and Grandes Écuries (stables) across the Place dArmes, on the eastern side of the château, and, in 1687, the Grand Trianon, or Trianon de Marbre (Marble Trianon), replacing Le Vau&#39;s 1668 Trianon de Porcelaine in the northern section of the park. Work was sufficiently advanced by 1682, that Louis XIV was able to proclaim Versailles his principal residence and the seat of the government of the Kingdom of France and also to give rooms in the palace to almost all of his courtiers. After the death of his consort Maria Theresa of Spain in 1683, Louis XIV undertook the enlargement and remodeling of the royal apartments in the original part of the palace, the former hunting lodge built by his father. The Royal Chapel of Versailles, located at the south end of the north wing, was begun by Mansart in 1688, and after his death in 1708 completed by his assistant Robert de Cotte in 1710.</p><br>
<h4>Cost</h4><br>
<p>One of the most baffling aspects to the study of Versailles is the cost – how much Louis XIV and his successors spent on Versailles. Owing to the nature of the construction of Versailles and the evolution of the role of the palace, construction costs were essentially a private matter. Initially, Versailles was planned to be an occasional residence for Louis XIV and was referred to as the "kings house". Accordingly, much of the early funding for construction came from the kings own purse, funded by revenues received from his appanage as well as revenues from the province of New France (Canada), which, while part of France, was a private possession of the king and therefore exempt from the control of the Parliaments.</p><br>
<p>Once Louis XIV embarked on his building campaigns, expenses for Versailles became more of a matter for public record, especially after Jean-Baptiste Colbert assumed the post of finance minister. Expenditures on Versailles have been recorded in the compendium known as the Comptes des bâtiments du roi sous le règne de Louis XIV and which was edited and published in five volumes by Jules Guiffrey in the 19th century. These volumes provide valuable archival material pursuant to the financial expenditures of all aspects of Versailles from the payments disbursed for many trades as varied as artists and mole catchers.</p><br>
<p>To counter the costs of Versailles during the early years of Louis XIV&#39;s personal reign, Colbert decided that Versailles should be the "showcase" of France. Accordingly, all materials that went into the construction and decoration of Versailles were manufactured in France. Even the mirrors used in the decoration of the Hall of Mirrors were made in France. While Venice in the 17th century had the monopoly on the manufacture of mirrors, Colbert succeeded in enticing a number of artisans from Venice to make the mirrors for Versailles. However, owing to Venetian proprietary claims on the technology of mirror manufacture, the Venetian government ordered the assassination of the artisans to keep the secrets proprietary to the Venetian Republic. To meet the demands for decorating and furnishing Versailles, Colbert nationalised the tapestry factory owned by the Gobelin family, to become the Manufacture royale des Gobelins.</p><br>
<p>In 1667, the name of the enterprise was changed to the Manufacture royale des Meubles de la Couronne. The Gobelins were charged with all decoration needs of the palace, which was under the direction of Charles Le Brun.</p><br>
<p>One of the most costly elements in the furnishing of the grands appartements during the early years of the personal reign of Louis XIV was the silver furniture, which can be taken as a standard – with other criteria – for determining a plausible cost for Versailles. The Comptes meticulously list the expenditures on the silver furniture – disbursements to artists, final payments, delivery – as well as descriptions and weight of items purchased. Entries for 1681 and 1682 concerning the silver balustrade used in the salon de Mercure serve as an example:</p><br>
<p>Year 1681</p><br>
<p>II. 5 In anticipation: For the silver balustrade for the king&#39;s bedroom: 90,000 livres</p><br>
<p>II. 7 18 November to Sieur du Metz, 43,475 livres 5 sols for delivery to Sr. Lois and to Sr. de Villers for payment of 142,196 livres for the silver balustrade that they are making for the king&#39;s bedroom and 404 livres for tax: 48,861 livres 5 sol.</p><br>
<p>II. 15 16 June 1681 – 23 January 1682 to Sr. Lois and Sr. de Villers silversmiths on account for the silver balustrade that they are making for the king&#39;s use (four payments): 88,457 livres 5 sols.</p><br>
<p>II. 111 25 March – 18 April to Sr. Lois and Sr. de Villers silversmiths who are working on a silver balustrade for the king, for continued work (two payments): 40,000 livres</p><br>
<p>Year 1682</p><br>
<p>II. 129 21 March to Sr. Jehannot de Bartillay 4,970 livres 12 sols for the delivery to Sr. Lois and de Villers silversmiths for, with 136,457 livres 5 sol to one and 25,739 livres 10 sols to another, making the 38 balusters, 17 pilasters, the base and the cornice for the balustrade for the château of Versailles weighing 4,076 marc at the rate of 41 livres the marc including 41 livres 2 sols for tax: 4,970 livres 12 sols.</p><br>
<p>Accordingly, the silver balustrade, which contained in excess of one ton of silver, cost in excess of 560,000 livres. It is difficult – if not impossible – to give an accurate rate of exchange between 1682 and today. However, Frances Buckland provides valuable information that provides an idea of the true cost of the expenditures at Versailles during the time of Louis XIV. In 1679, Mme de Maintenon stated that the cost of providing light and food for twelve people for one day amounted to slightly more than 14 livres. In December 1689, to defray the cost of the War of the League of Augsburg, Louis XIV ordered all the silver furniture and articles of silver at Versailles – including chamber pots – sent to the mint to be melted.</p><br>
<p>Clearly, the silver furniture alone represented a significant outlay in the finances of Versailles. While the decoration of the palace was costly, certain other costs were minimised. For example, labour for construction was often low, due largely to the fact that the army during times of peace and during the winter, when wars were not waged, was pressed into action at Versailles. Additionally, given the quality and uniqueness of the items produced at the Gobelins for use and display at Versailles, the palace served as a venue to showcase not only the success of Colbert&#39;s mercantilism, but also to display the finest that France could produce.</p><br>
<p>Estimates of the amount spent to build Versailles are speculative. An estimate in 2000 placed the amount spent during the Ancien Régime as US$2 billion, this figure being, in all probability, an under-evaluation. France&#39;s Fifth Republic expenditures alone, directed to restoration and maintenance at Versailles, undoubtedly surpass those of the Sun King.</p><br>
<h4>18th century</h4><br>
<p>In 1738, Louis XV remodeled the king&#39;s petit appartement on the north side of the Cour de Marbre, originally the entrance court of the old château, and built a pavilion not far from the Grand Trianon, the Petit Trianon, designed by Ange-Jacques Gabriel and completed in 1768. At the north end of the north wing, Gabriel also built a theatre, the Opéra, completed in 1770, in time for the marriage of Louis-Auguste Dauphin of France to the Austrian Archduchess Marie Antoinette. After his accession to the throne, Louis XVI made few changes to the palace, primarily to the royal private apartments. However, after Louis XVI gave Marie Antoinette the Petit Trianon in 1774, the queen made extensive changes to the interior, added a theater, the Théâtre de la Reine. She also totally transformed the arboretum planted during the reign of Louis XV into what became known as the Hameau de la Reine. (The trees removed from the Trianon arboretum were brought & replanted in the Jardin des Plantes in Paris.)</p><br>
<h4>19th century</h4><br>
<p>During the French Revolution, after the royal familys forced move to Paris on 6 October 1789, three years before the fall of the monarchy, Versailles fell into disrepair and most of the furniture was sold. Some restoration work was undertaken by Napoleon in 1810 and Louis XVIII in 1820, but the principal effort to restore and maintain Versailles was initiated by Louis-Philippe, when he created the Musée de lHistoire de France, dedicated to "all the glories of France". The museum is located in the Aile du Midi (South Wing), which during the Ancien Régime had been used to lodge the members of the royal family. It was begun in 1833 and inaugurated on 30 June 1837. Its most famous room is the Galerie des Batailles (Hall of Battles), which lies on most of the length of the second floor.</p><br>
<h4>20th century</h4><br>
<p>Neglect after October 1789, when the royal family had to leave Versailles, and the ravages of war in parts of the 19th and 20th centuries have left their mark on the palace and its park. Post-World War II governments have sought to repair these damages. On the whole, they have been successful, but some of the more costly items, such as the vast array of fountains, have yet to be put back completely in service. As spectacular as they might seem now, they were even more extensive in the 18th century. The 18th-century waterworks at Marly— the Machine de Marly that fed the fountains— was possibly the biggest mechanical system of its time. The water came in from afar on monumental stone aqueducts which have long ago fallen into disrepair or been torn down. Some aqueducts, such as the unfinished Canal de l&#39;Eure, which passes through the gardens of the château de Maintenon, were never completed for want of resources or due to the exigencies of war. The search for sufficient supplies of water was never fully realised even during the apogee of the reign of the Sun King, as the fountains could not be operated together satisfactorily for any significant periods of time.</p><br>
<p>The restoration initiatives launched by the Fifth Republic have proven to be perhaps more costly than the expenditures of the palace in the Ancien Régime. Starting in the 1950s, when the museum of Versailles was under the directorship of Gérald van der Kemp, the objective was to restore the palace to its state – or as close to it as possible – in 1789 when the royal family left the palace. Among the early projects was the repair of the roof over the Hall of Mirrors; the publicity campaign brought international attention to the plight of post-war Versailles and garnered much foreign money including a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation. Concurrently, in the Soviet Union (Russia since 26 December 1991), the restoration of the Pavlovsk Palace located 25 kilometers from the center of Leningrad – today&#39;s Saint Petersburg – brought the attention of French Ministry of Culture, including that of the curator of Versailles.</p><br>
<p>Pavlovsk Palace was built by Catherine the Great&#39;s son Paul. The czarevitch and his wife, Marie Feodorovna, were ardent francophiles, who, on a visit to France and Versailles in May and June 1782, purchased great quantities of silk, which they later used to upholster furniture in Pavlovsk. The palace survived the Russian Revolution intact – descendants of Paul I were living in the palace at the time the communists evicted them – however, during the Second World War, the furniture and artifacts housed in the palace, which had been transformed into a museum, were removed. In the process of evacuation the museum collections, remnants of the silks purchased by Paul I of Russia and Marie Feodorovna were found and preserved. After the war when Soviet authorities were restoring the palace, which had been gutted by the retreating Nazi forces, they recreated the silk fabrics by using the preserved 18th-century remnants.</p><br>
<p>When these results and high quality achieved were brought to the attention of the French Minister of Culture, he revived 18th-century weaving techniques so as to reproduce the silks used in the decoration of Versailles. The two greatest achievements of this initiative are seen today in wall hangings used in the restoration of the chambre de la reine in the grand appartement de reine and the chambre du roi in the appartement du roi. While the design used for the chambre du roi was, in fact, from the original design to decorate the chambre de la reine, it nevertheless represents a great achievement in the ongoing restoration at Versailles. Additionally, this project, which took over seven years to achieve, required several hundred kilograms of silver and gold to complete. One of the more costly endeavours for the museum and Frances Fifth Republic has been to repurchase as much of the original furnishings as possible. However, because furniture with a royal provenance – and especially furniture that was made for Versailles – is a highly sought after commodity on the international market, the museum has spent considerable funds on retrieving much of the palaces original furnishings.</p><br>
<h4>21st century</h4><br>
<p>The Fifth Republic has enthusiastically promoted the museum as one of France&#39;s foremost tourist attractions, with recent figures stating that nearly five million people visit the château, and 8 to 10 million walk in the gardens, every year. In 2003, a new restoration initiative – the "Grand Versailles" project – was started, which necessitated unexpected repair and replantation of the gardens, which had lost over 10,000 trees during Hurricane Lothar on 26 December 1999. The project will be on-going for the next seventeen years, funded with a state endowment of €135 million allocated for the first seven years. It will address such concerns as security for the palace and continued restoration of the bosquet des trois fontaines. Vinci SA underwrote the €12 million restoration project for the Hall of Mirrors, which was completed in 2006.</p><br>
<h3>Social history</h3><br>
<h4>Politics of display</h4><br>
<p>On 6 May 1682, Versailles became officially the seat of the government of the kingdom of France, the home of the French King Louis XIV, and the location of the royal court. Symbolically, the central room of the long extensive symmetrical range of buildings was the King&#39;s Bedchamber (appartement du roi), which itself was centred on the lavish and symbolic state bed, set behind a rich railing. Indeed, even the principal axis of the gardens themselves was conceived to radiate from this fulcrum. All the power of France emanated from this centre: there were government offices here; as well as the homes of thousands of courtiers, their retinues and all the attendant functionaries of court. By requiring that nobles of a certain rank and position spend time each year at Versailles, Louis XIV prevented them from developing their own regional power at the expense of his own and kept them from countering his efforts to centralize the French government in an absolute monarchy.</p><br>
<p>At various periods before Louis XIV established absolute rule, France, like the Holy Roman Empire lacked central authority and was not the unified state it was to become during subsequent centuries. During the Middle Ages, French nobles were often more powerful than the King of France and, although technically loyal to him, they possessed their own provincial seats of power and government, the loyalty of culturally influential courts and armies, and the right to levy their own taxes on their subjects. Some families were so powerful they achieved international prominence and contracted marriage alliances with foreign royal houses to further their own political ambitions. Although nominally Kings of France, de facto royal power had at times been limited purely to the region around Paris.</p><br>
<h4>Life at Court</h4><br>
<p>Life at Versailles was determined by position, favour, and, above all, ones birth. The chateau was a sprawling cluster of lodgings for which courtiers vied and manipulated. Today, Versailles is seen as unparalleled in its magnificence and splendour, yet few know of the actual living conditions many of Versailles privileged residents had to endure. Many modern historians have compared the palace to a vast, crowded apartment block. Apart from the royal family, the majority of the residents were senior members of the household.</p><br>
<p>On each floor apartments of varying size, 350 in all, were arranged along tiled corridors and given a number and a key. Many courtiers traded lodgings and grouped themselves together with their allies, families or friends. The Noailles family took over so much of the northern wing&#39;s attic that floor was nicknamed rue de Noailles (Noailles Street).</p><br>
<p>Louis XIV envisaged Versailles as a seat for all the Bourbons, as well as his troublesome nobles. These nobles were, so to say, placed within a "gilded cage". Many of the apartments were far from luxurious with many nobles having to make do with one or two room apartments, forcing many of them to build or buy town-houses in Versailles proper while keeping their palace rooms for changes of clothes or entertaining guests, rarely sleeping there. Rooms at Versailles were immensely useful for ambitious courtiers, as they allowed palace residents easy access to the monarch.</p><br>
<h4>Political and ceremonial functions</h4><br>
<p>Two of the three treaties of the Peace of Paris (1783), in which the United Kingdom recognized the independence of the United States, were signed at Versailles.</p><br>
<p>After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, with the Siege of Paris dragging on, the palace was the main headquarters of the Prussian army from 5 October 1870 until 13 March 1871. On 18 January 1871, Prussian King Wilhelm I was proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors and the German Empire was founded.</p><br>
<p>After the First World War, it was the site of the opening of the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, also on 18 January. Germany was blamed for causing the First World War in the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed in the same room on 28 June 1919.</p><br>
<p>The palace, however, still serves political functions. Heads of state are regaled in the Hall of Mirrors; the bicameral French Parliament&mdash;consisting of the Senate (Sénat) and the National Assembly (Assemblée nationale)&mdash;meet in joint session (a congress of the French Parliament) in Versailles to revise or otherwise amend the French Constitution, a tradition that came into effect with the promulgation of the 1875 Constitution. For example, the Parliament met in joint session at Versailles to pass constitutional amendments in June 1999 (for domestic applicability of International Criminal Court decisions and for gender equality in candidate lists), in January 2000 (ratifying the Treaty of Amsterdam), and in March 2003 (specifying the "decentralized organization" of the French Republic).</p><br>
<p>In 2009, President Nicolas Sarkozy addressed the global financial crisis before a congress in Versailles, the first time that this had been done since 1848, when Charles-Louis Napoleon Bonaparte gave an address before the French Second Republic. Following the November 2015 Paris attacks, President Francois Hollande gave a speech before a rare joint session of parliament at the Palace of Versailles. This was the third time since 1848 that a French president addressed a joint session of the French Parliament at Versailles. The president of the National Assembly has an official apartment at the Palace of Versailles.</p><br>
<h2>Palace and grounds</h2><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>The palace that we recognize today was largely completed by the death of Louis XIV in 1715. The eastern facing palace has a U-shaped layout, with the corps de logis and symmetrical advancing secondary wings terminating with the Dufour Pavilion on the south and the Gabriel Pavilion to the north, creating an expansive cour d&#39;honneur known as the Royal Court (Cour Royale). Flanking the Royal Court are two enormous asymmetrical wings that result in a facade of 402 m in length. Encompassing 721,182 ft&sup2; the palace has 700 rooms, more than 2,000 windows, 1,250 fireplaces and 67 staircases.</p><br>
<p>The façade of the original lodge is preserved on the entrance front. Built of red brick and cut stone embellishments, the U-shaped layout surrounds a black-and-white marble courtyard. In the center, a 3-storey avant-corps fronted with eight red marble columns supporting a gilded wrought-iron balcony is surmounted with a triangle of lead statuary surrounding a large clock, whose hands were stopped upon the death of Louis XIV. The rest of the façade is completed with columns, painted and gilded wrought-iron balconies and dozens of stone tables decorated with consoles holding marble busts of Roman emperors. Atop the mansard slate roof are elaborate dormer windows and gilt lead roof dressings that were added by Hardouin-Mansart in 1679–1681.</p><br>
<p>Inspired by the architecture of baroque Italian villas, but executed in the French classical style, the garden front and wings were encased in white cut ashlar stone known as the enveloppe in 1661-1678. The exterior features an arcaded, rusticated ground floor, supporting a main floor with round-headed windows divided by reliefs and pilasters or columns. The attic storey has square windows and pilasters and crowned by a balustrade bearing sculptured trophies and flame pots dissimulating a flat roof.</p><br>
<p>Plans du rez-de-chaussée et du premier étage du palais de Versailles, Éditeur Gavard, premier étage - Gallica 2011 (detail, color-coded).jpgPlan of the main floor (c. 1837, with north to the right), showing the Hall of Mirrors in red, the Hall of Battles in green, the Royal Chapel in yellow, and the Royal Opera in blue</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<h4>Grands appartements (State Apartments)</h4><br>
<p>As a result of Le Vaus enveloppe of Louis XIIIs former hunting lodge transforming it, between 1631 and 1634, into a red brick and white stone small château, with a black tile roof, the king and the queen had new apartments in the new addition, known at the time as the château neuf. The grands appartements (Grand Apartments, also referred to as the State Apartments) are known respectively as the grand appartement du roi and the grand appartement de la reine. They occupied the main or principal floor of the château neuf, with three rooms in each apartment facing the garden to the west and four facing the garden parterres to the north and south, respectively. Le Vau&#39;s design for the state apartments closely followed Italian models of the day, as evidenced by the placement of the apartments on the next floor up from the ground level—the piano nobile—a convention the architect borrowed from 16th- and 17th-century Italian palace design.</p><br>
<p>The kings apartment consisted of an enfilade of seven rooms, each dedicated to one of the then known planets and their associated titular Roman deity. The queens apartment formed a parallel enfilade with that of the grand appartement du roi. It served as the residence of three queens of France - Marie-Thérèse dAutriche, wife of Louis XIV, Marie Leczinska, wife of Louis XV, and Marie-Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI. Additionally, Louis XIVs granddaughter-in-law, Princess Marie-Adélaïde of Savoy, duchesse de Bourgogne, wife of the Petit Dauphin, occupied these rooms from 1697 (the year of her marriage) to her death in 1712. After the addition of the Hall of Mirrors (1678–1684) the kings apartment was reduced to five rooms (until the reign of Louis XV, when two more rooms were added) and the queens to four.</p><br>
<h4>Appartement du roi (King's Apartment)</h4><br>
<p>The appartement du roi is a suite of rooms originally set aside for the personal use of Louis XIV in 1683. His successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, used these rooms for such ceremonies as the lever and the coucher.</p><br>
<h4>Petit appartement du roi (King's Private Apartment)</h4><br>
<p>The petit appartement du roi is a suite of rooms that were reserved for the private use of the king. Occupying the site on which rooms were originally arranged for Louis XIII on the first floor of the château, the space was radically modified by Louis XIV. His successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI had these rooms drastically modified and remodeled for their personal use.</p><br>
<h4>Petit appartement de la reine (Queen's Private Apartment)</h4><br>
<p>The petit appartement de la reine is a suite of rooms that were reserved for the personal use of the queen. Originally arranged for the use of the Marie-Thérèse, consort of Louis XIV, the rooms were later modified for use by Marie Leszczyńska and finally for Marie-Antoinette.</p><br>
<h4>Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors)</h4><br>
<p>The Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors), is perhaps the most celebrated room in the château of Versailles. The length of the gallery is more than 70 m and there are 17 wide arcaded mirrors. Elisabeth Vigée Le Brun painted 30 scenes as a testimony of early reign years of Louis XIV on the ceiling. Setting for many of the ceremonies of the French Court during the Ancien Régime, the Galerie des Glaces has also inspired numerous copies and renditions throughout the world.</p><br>
<p>The room&#39;s construction began in 1678 and finished in 1689.</p><br>
<h4>Chapels of Versailles</h4><br>
<p>In the evolution of the palace, there have been five chapels. The current chapel, which was the last major building project of Louis XIV, represents one of the finest examples of French Baroque architecture and ecclesiastical decoration.</p><br>
<p>The palace chapel is located in the north wing and its construction started by Hardouin-Mansart in 1699 but the person who completed the work was de Corte. Daily meetings, wedding ceremonies and baptisms were held in this chapel until 1789.</p><br>
<h4>Royal Opera</h4><br>
<p>Ange-Jacques Gabriels Royal Opera (Opéra Royal) was perhaps the most ambitious building project of Louis XV for the château of Versailles. Completed in 1770, the Opéra was inaugurated at the time of the wedding festivities of Louis XVs grandson, the Dauphin, future Louis XVI, and Marie-Antoinette. On October 1789, a banquet for royal guardsmen was held in this place. The Opera served as a host to the National Assembly from 1871 until 1875 when the Third Republic was proclaimed.</p><br>
<h4>The princes' wing</h4><br>
<p>The south wing of the palace was named "the princes&#39; wing" when quarters were given to princes du sang (princes of the blood). The Battles Gallery designed by architects Frédéric Nepveu and Pierre-Léonard Fontaine is situated on the first floor. and the ground floor hosts the Hall of Congress in which Chamber of Deputies gathered in 1876-79.</p><br>
<h4>Museum of the History of France</h4><br>
<p>In the 19th century the Museum of the History of France was founded in Versailles, at the behest of Louis-Philippe I, who ascended to the throne in 1830. The entire second floor (premier étage) of the Aile du Midi (South Wing) of the palace was transformed into the Galerie des Batailles to house the newly created collection of paintings and sculptures depicting milestones battles of French history. The collections display painted, sculpted, drawn and engraved images illustrating events or personalities of the history of France since its inception. The museum occupies the lateral wings of the Palace. Most of the paintings date back to the 19th century and have been created specially for the museum by major painters of the time such as Delacroix, Horace Vernet or François Gérard but there are also much older artworks which retrace French History. Notably the museum displays works by Philippe de Champaigne, Pierre Mignard, Laurent de La Hyre, Charles Le Brun, Adam Frans van der Meulen, Nicolas de Largillière, Hyacinthe Rigaud, Jean Antoine Houdon, Jean Marc Nattier, Elisabeth Vigée Le Brun, Hubert Robert, Thomas Lawrence, Jacques-Louis David, Antoine Jean Gros and also Pierre-Auguste Renoir.</p><br>
<h2></h2><br>
<h3>Gardens of Versailles</h3><br>
<p>Evolving with the château, the gardens of Versailles represent one of the finest extant examples of the jardin à la française created by André Le Nôtre.</p><br>
<h3>Subsidiary structures</h3><br>
<p>Located in proximity to the château, these smaller structures served the needs of the royal family and court officials during the Ancien Régime. They include the Ménagerie royale (1664), demolished; the Trianon de porcelaine (1670), demolished; the Grand Trianon or Trianon de marbre (Marble Trianon) (1689); the Petit Trianon (1768); and the Pavillon de la Lanterne (1787), a hunting lodge.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Madagascar 3 (2012) is an animated film in which sophisticated chimpanzees Mason and Phil dress up as "King of Versailles" in reference to the Palace of Versailles</p><br>
<p>"The Palace of Versailles" is a song by singer-songwriter Al Stewart, detailing the French Revolution, The Terror, and Napoléon Bonaparte&#39;s military coup, from the perspective of "the lonely Palace of Versailles"</p><br>
<p>On 2 July 2005, the French Live 8 was held in the courtyard of Versailles</p><br>
<p>In the Doctor Who episode, "Girl in the Fire Place" (2005), The Doctor met the Madame de Pompadour in the Palace of Versailles</p><br>
<p>Let Them Eat Cake, a 1999 BBC comedy starring Jennifer Saunders and Dawn French, is set within the Palace.</p><br>
<p>Versailles is a 2015 British-American-Franco-Canadian television series set during the construction of Versailles Palace during the reign of Louis XIV</p><br>
<p>Assassin&#39;s Creed Rogue is set in Versailles at the end of the game</p><br>
<p>Assassin&#39;s Creed Unity is set in Versailles at the beginning of the game</p><br>
<p>Castlevania: Bloodlines is a Konami video game in which Versailles is the fifth stage</p><br>
<p>Taos Pueblo  is an ancient pueblo belonging to a Tiwa-speaking Native American tribe of Puebloan people. It lies about 1 mi north of the modern city of Taos, New Mexico, USA. The pueblos are considered to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited communities in the United States. This has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<p>Taos Pueblo is a member of the Eight Northern Pueblos, whose people speak two variants of the Tanoan language. The Taos community is known for being one of the most private, secretive, and conservative pueblos. A reservation of 95,000 acre is attached to the pueblo, and about 4,500 people live in this area.</p><br>
<h2>Setting</h2><br>
<p>The pueblo was constructed in a setting backed by the Taos Mountains of the Sangre de Cristo Range. The settlement was built on either side of Rio Pueblo de Taos, also called Rio Pueblo and Red Willow Creek, a small stream that flows through the middle of the pueblo compound. Its headwaters come from the nearby mountains.</p><br>
<p>Taos Pueblos most prominent architectural feature is a multi-storied residential complex of reddish-brown adobe, built on either side of the Rio Pueblo. The Pueblos website states it was probably built between 1000 and 1450.</p><br>
<p>The pueblo was designated a National Historic Landmark on October 9, 1960. In 1992 it was designated as a UNESCO Heritage Site. As of 2006, about 150 people live in the historic complex full-time.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<h3>Taos language</h3><br>
<p>In the Tanoan language of Taos (Northern Tiwa), the pueblo is referred to as "the village" in either tə̂otho "in the village" (tə̂o- "village" + -tho "in") or tə̂obo "to/toward the village" (tə̂o- "village" + -bo "to, toward"). The proper name of the pueblo is ȉałopháymųp’ȍhə́othə̀olbo "at red willow canyon mouth" (or ȉałopháybo "at the red willows" for short). This name is more commonly used in ceremonial contexts and is less common in everyday speech.</p><br>
<h3>Spanish language</h3><br>
<p>The name Taos in English was borrowed from Spanish Taos. Spanish Taos is probably a borrowing of Taos tə̂o- "village" which was heard as tao to which the plural -s was added although in the modern language Taos is no longer a plural noun. The idea that the Spanish Taos is from tao, "cross of the order of San Juan de los Caballeros" (from Greek tau), is unlikely.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-Columbian</h3><br>
<p>Most archeologists believe that the Taos Indians, along with other Pueblo Indians, settled along the Rio Grande after migrating south from the Four Corners region. The dwellings of that region were inhabited by the Ancestral Puebloans. A long drought in the area in the late 13th century may have caused them to move to the Rio Grande, where the water supply was more dependable.</p><br>
<p>Throughout its early years, Taos Pueblo was a central point of trade between the native populations along the Rio Grande and their Plains Tribes neighbors to the northeast. Taos Pueblo hosted a trade fair each fall after the agricultural harvest.</p><br>
<h3>Post-contact</h3><br>
<p>The first Spanish visitors to Taos Pueblo arrived in 1540; they were members of the Francisco Vásquez de Coronado expedition, which stopped at many of New Mexico’s pueblos in search of the rumored Seven Cities of Gold. Around 1620, Spanish Jesuits oversaw construction of the first Catholic Church in the pueblo, the mission of San Geronimo de Taos. Reports from the period indicate that the native people of Taos resisted the building of the church and imposition of the Catholic religion. Throughout the 1600s, cultural tensions grew between the native populations of the Southwest and the increasing Spanish colonial presence. Taos Pueblo was no exception. By 1660, the native people killed the resident priest and destroyed the church. Several years after it was rebuilt, the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 began; the Taos destroyed the church and killed two resident priests.</p><br>
<p>By the turn of the 18th century, San Geronimo de Taos was under construction for a third time. Spanish/Taos relations within the pueblo became amicable for a brief period as both groups found a common enemy in invading Ute and Comanche tribes. Resistance to Catholicism and Spanish culture was still strong. Even so, Spanish religious ideals and agricultural practices subtly worked their way into the Taos community, largely starting during this time of increased cooperation between the two cultural groups.</p><br>
<p>The Taos revolt began before the conclusion of the Mexican-American War in 1847. A Mexican Pablo Montoya and Tomasito, a leader at Taos Pueblo, led a force of Mexicans and Taos who did not want to become a part of the United States. They killed Governor Charles Bent and others and marched on Santa Fe. The revolt was suppressed after the rebels took refuge in San Geronimo Mission Church. The American troops bombarded the church, killing or capturing the insurrectionists and destroying the physical structure. Around 1850, a new mission church was constructed near the west gate of the pueblo wall. The ruins of the original church and its 1850s replacement are both still visible inside the pueblo wall today. Father Anton Docher first served as a priest in Taos before his years in Isleta, where he became known as "The Padre of Isleta".</p><br>
<p>In 1924-25 the Taos Pueblo culture was studied by German psychiatrist Carl Jung, who visited the Pueblo led by Ochwiay Biano. He was very interested in indigenous societies as he believed they were more closely in touch with archetypes.</p><br>
<h4>Taos Mountain</h4><br>
<p>The Pueblo&#39;s 48,000 acre of mountain land was taken by President Theodore Roosevelt and designated as the Carson National Forest early in the 20th century. It was finally returned in 1970 by the United States when President Nixon signed Public Law 91-550. An additional 764 acre south of the ridge between Simpson Peak and Old Mike Peak and west of Blue Lake were transferred back to the Pueblo in 1996.</p><br>
<h4>Blue Lake</h4><br>
<p>Blue Lake, which the people of the Pueblo consider sacred, was included in this return of Taos land. The Pueblo notably involved non-native people in lobbying the federal government for the return of Blue Lake, as they argued that their unrestricted access to the lake and the surrounding region was necessary to ensure their religious freedom. The Pueblo&#39;s web site names the reacquisition of the sacred Blue Lake as the most important event in its history due to the spiritual belief that the Taos people originated from the lake. It is believed that their anscestors live there, and the pueblos themselves only ascend the mountain twice a year.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>At the time of the Spaniards&#39; initial contact, Hernando de Alvarado described the pueblo as having adobe houses built very close together and stacked five or six stories high. The homes became narrower as they rose, with the roofs of each level providing the floors and terraces for those above.</p><br>
<p>The buildings at Taos originally had few windows and no standard doorways. Instead, access to rooms was through square holes in the roof that the people reached by climbing long, wooden ladders. Cedar logs (or vigas) supported roofs that had layers of branches, grass, mud, and plaster covering them. The architecture and the building materials were well suited for the rigors of the environment and the needs of the people in the Taos Valley.</p><br>
<p>The first Spanish-influenced architecture appeared in Taos Pueblo after Fray Francisco de Zamora came there in 1598 to establish a mission, under orders from Spanish Governor, Don Juan de Oñate.</p><br>
<h3>Main structure</h3><br>
<p>The north-side Pueblo is said to be one of the most photographed and painted buildings in North America. It is the largest multistoried Pueblo structure still existing. It is made of adobe walls that are often several feet thick. Its primary purpose was for defense. Up to as late as 1900, access to the rooms on lower floors was by ladders on the outside to the roof, and then down an inside ladder. In case of an attack, outside ladders could easily be pulled up.</p><br>
<h3>Homes</h3><br>
<p>The homes in this structure usually consist of two rooms, one of which is for general living and sleeping, and the second of which is for cooking, eating, and storage. Each home is self-contained; there are no passageways between the houses. Taos Indians made little use of furniture in the past, but today they have tables, chairs, and beds. In the pueblo, electricity, running water, and indoor plumbing are prohibited.</p><br>
<h2>Spiritual community</h2><br>
<h3>Religious practices</h3><br>
<p>Two spiritual practices are represented in the Pueblo: the original indigenous spiritual and religious tradition</p><br>
<h2>In culture</h2><br>
<p>Author and poet Nancy Wood was greatly influenced by her time spent at Taos Pueblo, and it is featured in much of her work.</p><br>
<p>St. Elizabeths Hospital opened in 1855 as the first federally operated psychiatric hospital in the United States. Housing over 8,000 patients at its peak in the 1950s, the hospital at one point had a fully functioning medical-surgical unit, a school of nursing, and accredited internships and psychiatric residencies. Its campus was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1990.</p><br>
<p>St. Elizabeths is in southeast Washington, D.C. Since 2010, hospital functions have been limited to a portion of the east campus operated by the District of Columbia Department of Mental Health. The remainder of the east campus is slated for redevelopment by the District of Columbia which owns the site. The west campus is owned by the federal government and is being redeveloped for use as headquarters for the USA Department of Homeland Security and its child agencies.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early years and peak operations</h3><br>
<p>The hospital was created in August 1852 when the United States Congress appropriated $100,000 for the construction of a mental hospital in Washington, D.C. to provide care for indigent, mentally ill residents of the District of Columbia, as well as for the insane of the USA Army and USA Navy. As early as the 1830s, local residents including Dr. Thomas Miller, a local doctor and president of the D.C. Board of Health, had been petitioning Congress for a facility to care for the mentally ill in the City of Washington. Their efforts were given a significant boost when Dorothea Dix (1802-1877), a pioneering advocate for people living with mental illnesses, helped convince legislators of the need for the hospital. In 1852 she wrote the legislation that established the hospital. Dix, who was on friendly terms with President Millard Fillmore, was asked to assist the Secretary of the Interior in getting the hospital started. Her first recommendation resulted in the appointment of Dr. Charles H. Nichols as the hospital&#39;s first superintendent. After his appointment in the fall of 1852, Nichols and Dix began formulating a plan for the design and operation of the hospital as well as finding an appropriate location for it, based upon guidelines created by Thomas Story Kirkbride. His 1854 manual recommended specifics such as site, ventilation, number of patients and the need for a rural location proximate to a city. He also recommended that the location have good soil for farming and gardens for the patients.</p><br>
<p>Dr. Nichols oversaw the design and building of St. Elizabeths which began in 1853. It was built in three phases, the west wing first, then the east wing and finally the center portion. The center portion was built to house all administrative operations as well as the superintendents residential quarters. All three sections of the hospital were together under one roof, in keeping with Kirkbrides design. Two other buildings, the West Lodge (1856-1898) for men and the East Lodge for women were built to house and care for African American patients.</p><br>
<p>Soon after the hospital opened to patients in January 1855, it became known officially as the Government Hospital for the Insane. During the Civil War the West Lodge, originally built for male African-American patients, was used as a general hospital by the USA Navy. The unfinished east wing of the main building was used by the USA Army as a general hospital for sick and wounded soldiers. The Army hospital officially took the name of St. Elizabeths Army Medical Hospital to differentiate it from the mental hospital in the west wing of the same building. The name St. Elizabeths was derived from the colonial-era name for the tract of land on which the hospital was built.</p><br>
<p>After the Civil War and the closing of the Army&#39;s hospital, the St. Elizabeths name was used unofficially and intermittently until 1916, when Congress passed legislation changing the name from the Government Hospital for the Insane to St. Elizabeths Hospital, inexplicably omitting the possessive apostrophe. Also it transferred hospital to the United States Department of Interior.</p><br>
<p>In the late 19th century, the hospital temporarily housed animals which were brought back from expeditions for the Smithsonian Institution, because of lack of housing for the animals at the yet to be built National Zoo.</p><br>
<p>By 1940 St. Elizabeths Hospital was transferred to Federal Security Agency, after abolition of Service hospital was transferred to Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. At its peak, the St. Elizabeths campus housed 8,000 patients and employed 4,000 people. Beginning in the 1950s, however, large institutions such as St. Elizabeths were being criticized for hindering the treatment of patients. Community-based health care, as specified in the passage of the 1963 Community Mental Health Act, led to deinstitutionalization. The act provided for local outpatient facilities and drug therapy as a more effective means of allowing patients to live near-normal lives. The first community-based center for mental health was established at St. Elizabeths in 1969. The patient population of St. Elizabeths steadily declined.</p><br>
<p>By the 1960s and 1970s, hospital was transferred to the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Institutes of Health and the Department of Health and Human Services.</p><br>
<h3>Later years</h3><br>
<p>By 1996, only 850 patients remained at the hospital, and years of neglect had become apparent; equipment and medicine shortages occurred frequently, and the heating system was broken for weeks at a time. By 2002, all remaining patients on the Federal western campus were transferred to other facilities. Although it continues to operate, it does so on a far smaller scale than it once did. As of January 31, 2009, the current patient census was 404 in-patients.</p><br>
<p>In recent years, approximately half of St. Elizabeths patients are civilly committed to the hospital for treatment; the other half are forensic (criminal) patients. Forensic patients are those who are adjudicated to be criminally insane (not guilty by reason of insanity) or considered incompetent to stand trial. Civil patients are those who are admitted due to an acute need for psychiatric care. Civil patients can be voluntarily or involuntarily committed for treatment.</p><br>
<p>A new civil and forensic hospital was built on the East Campus by the District of Columbia Department of Mental Health and opened in the spring of 2010, housing approximately 297 patients. Until the new hospital opened, civil patients were cared for in various buildings on the East Campus; forensic patients were housed in the John Howard Pavilion. In the new facility, civil and forensic patients live in separate units of the same building. The new hospital also houses a library, an auditorium, multiple computer laboratories, and a small museum in the lobby.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, the USA Department of Justice and the District of Columbia reached a settlement over allegations that the civil rights of patients housed at St. Elizabeths were violated by the District. On August 28, 2014, the Department of Justice found that St. Elizabeths had "significantly improved the care and treatment of persons confined to Saint Elizabeths Hospital" and asked a federal court to dismiss the injunction. In January 2015, DC Auditors dismissed the settlement agreement and officially ended oversight of St. Elizabeths Hospital.</p><br>
<h3>Revitalization plans for western campus</h3><br>
<p>After several decades in decline, the large campus could not be maintained. In 1987, hospital functions on the eastern campus were transferred from the United States Department of Health and Human Services to the District of Columbia government by St. Elizabeths Hospital and District of Columbia Mental Health Services Act of 1984, with the federal government retaining ownership of the western campus. Several commercial redevelopment opportunities were proposed by the D.C. government and consultants, including relocating the University of the District of Columbia to the campus or developing office and retail space. However, the tremendous cost of bringing the facilities up to code (estimated at $50–$100 million) kept developers away.</p><br>
<p>With little interest in developing the site privately, the Federal Government stepped in. Control of the western campus—home of the oldest building on the campus, the Center Building—was transferred to the General Services Administration in 2004. GSA improved security around the campus, shored up roofs, and covered the windows with plywood in an attempt to preserve the campus until a tenant could be found.</p><br>
<p>After three years of searching for an occupant, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced on March 20, 2007 that it would spend approximately US$4.1 billion to move its headquarters and most of its Washington-based offices to a new 4,500,000 ft2 facility on the site, beginning with the United States Coast Guard in 2010. DHS, whose operations are scattered around dozens of buildings in the Washington, D.C. area, hopes to consolidate at least 60 of its facilities at St. Elizabeths and to save $64 million per year in rental costs. DHS also hopes to improve employee morale and unity by having a central location from which to operate.</p><br>
<p>The plans to locate DHS to St. Elizabeths have been met with criticism, however. Historic preservationists argue that the move will destroy dozens of historic buildings located on the campus and that other alternatives should be considered.</p><br>
<p>A ceremonial groundbreaking for the DHS consolidated headquarters took place at St. Elizabeths on September 11, 2009. The event was attended by Senator Joseph Lieberman, DHS Secretary Janet Napolitano, DC Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton, DC Mayor Adrian Fenty, and acting GSA Administrator Paul Prouty.</p><br>
<p>The relocated USA Coast Guard Headquarters Building was forecast to open in May 2013, and a ceremony was held in July 2013 at the site before it is to be officially opened. Along USA Coast Guard Headquarters Building, several former hospital buildings (Atkins Hall, cafeteria) had been rehabilitated.</p><br>
<h2>Patients</h2><br>
<p>Well-known patients of St. Elizabeths have included would-be Presidential assassins Richard Lawrence (who attempted to kill Andrew Jackson) and John Hinckley, Jr., who shot Ronald Reagan, as well as the assassin of James Garfield, Charles J. Guiteau (until his execution). Other notable residents were Mary Fuller, James Swann, Ezra Pound, and William Chester Minor.</p><br>
<p>According to Kelly Patricia O&#39;Meara, St. Elizabeths is believed to have treated over 125,000 patients, though an exact number is not known due to poor record keeping. Additionally, she believes that thousands of patients are buried in unmarked graves across the campus, although records for the individuals buried in the graves have been lost. She believes that the incinerator on site also brings up a few questions as to what may have happened to the bodies. The General Services Administration, current owner of the property, considered using ground penetrating radar to attempt to locate unmarked graves but has yet to do so.</p><br>
<p>More than 15,000 known autopsies were performed at St. Elizabeths between 1884 and 1982, and a collection of over 1,400 brains preserved in formaldehyde, 5,000 photographs of brains, and 100,000 slides of brain tissue was maintained by the hospital; until the collection was transferred to a museum in 1986, according to O&#39;Meara. In addition to the mental health patients buried on the campus, several hundred American Civil War soldiers are interred at St. Elizabeths as well.</p><br>
<h2>Contributions to medicine</h2><br>
<p>Several important therapeutic techniques were pioneered at St. Elizabeths, and it served as a model for later institutions. Walter Freeman, onetime laboratory director, was inspired by St. Elizabeths to pioneer the transorbital lobotomy. During American involvement in World War II, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS, predecessor to the CIA) used facilities and staff at St. Elizabeths hospital to test "truth serums". OSS unsuccessfully tested a mescaline and scopolamine cocktail as a truth drug on two volunteers at St. Elizabeths Hospital. Separate tests of THC as a truth serum were equally unsuccessful. In 1963 Dr. Luther D. Robinson, the first African-American superintendent of St. Elizabeths, founded the mental health program for the deaf and was throughout his career a leading authority on treating deaf patients with mental disorders.</p><br>
<h2>Facilities and grounds</h2><br>
<p>The campus of St. Elizabeths sits on bluffs overlooking the confluence of the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers in the southeast quadrant of Washington, D.C. It is divided by Martin Luther King, Jr. Avenue between the 118 acre east campus (owned by the D.C. Government) and the 182 acre west campus (owned by the Federal Government). It has many important buildings, foremost among them the Center Building, designed according to the principles of the Kirkbride Plan by Thomas U. Walter (1804–1887), who is better known as the primary architect of the expansion of the USA Capitol that was begun in 1851.</p><br>
<p>Much of St. Elizabeths campus has now fallen into disuse and is in serious disrepair. It has been named one of the nations 11 Most Endangered Places in 2002 by the National Trust for Historic Preservation. Access to many areas of the campus, including the abandoned western campus (which houses the Center Building) is restricted.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The hospital was referred to in an episode of the television series Bonanza. The episode was "The Unseen Wound", featuring Leslie Nielsen as a sheriff, playing a former Civil-War-era Army officer who falls victim to PTSD, although the modern term was not used in the script.</p><br>
<p>In the TV series The Rebel episode "Berserk", a PTSD victim was told by Nick Adams character at the end of the show as he climbed aboard a stagecoach that hes headed to a new hospital in Washington called St. Elizabeths&#39;.</p><br>
<p>Portions of the west campus can be seen in the film A Few Good Men.</p><br>
<p>National Public Radio interns toured the east and west campuses, then shared their experiences, in 2010.</p><br>
<p>St. Elizabeths is referenced several times in W.E.B. Griffin&#39;s The Corps Series and Men at War as a place that the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) will confine people they consider a security risk for the duration of World War II.</p><br>
<p>Abraham Lincoln mentioned St. Elizabeths to Mary Todd Lincoln in the novel Mrs. Lincoln&#39;s Dressmaker by Jennifer Chiaverini. It is shown to her because she cannot control her grief over the death of her son Willie.</p><br>
<p>The Wank is a mountain in southern Germany, situated in the Loisach valley close to the Austrian border in the southwestern Ester Mountains range near Garmisch-Partenkirchen. It rises from about 700 m above mean sea level up to 1,780 m at the summit. The mountain is crowned by a grassy summit which has views over Garmisch-Partenkirchen and the surrounding region. The summit can be reached via the eponymous Wankbahn, a cable car system that runs during the summer months, or by a network of footpaths that criss-cross the area. It is possible to both eat and sleep on the Wank at the Wank-Haus, a mountain hut on the summit, and a nearby scientific observatory plays a role in monitoring atmospheric and climatic conditions. The Wank is a destination for hikers, day-trippers from Garmisch-Partenkirchen and paragliders.</p><br>
<h2>Physical characteristics</h2><br>
<p>The mountains geology, which is dominated by calcareous rocks, is typical of the Bavarian Alps. Its climate is also typical of the region. Precipitation is high, ranging from about 1,300 mm at valley level to 1,800 mm at the summit. It peaks in the summer and is lowest in winter. The Wanks mean annual air temperature ranges from 7 &deg;C in the valley to 3 &deg;C at the summit. The prevailing wind comes from a westerly direction but for about 30 to 40 days a year the mountain experiences a warm, dry föhn wind. A local wind system also operates in the area giving a daily uphill/downhill circulation. Inversion layers occur for about 30 days per year, predominately in the autumn and winter.</p><br>
<p>The Wank was originally covered by a forest consisting of a mix of spruce, fir and beech trees. A process of man-made deforestation that began in the Roman period, when the trees were cut down and the mountain&#39;s slopes were grazed by horses, sheep, goats and cattle, resulted in much of the forest being destroyed by the 15th century. Forestry in the area was taken over by the Bavarian government in 1803 but the former forest cover did not regenerate due in part to the continued use of forest lands as pasture, storms and browsing by game animals. As a result, the current Wank forest is predominately spruce (about 75%) and pine (15%). Forestry programmes are currently underway to improve the arboreal diversity of the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Wankbahn</h2><br>
<p>The Wank is linked to Garmisch-Partenkirchen by a cable car system called the Wankbahn, which usually operates between May and September during daylight hours. Construction began in 1928 under the auspices of the Wank-Bahn AG and the cable car entered service in 1929. It is 3 km long and rises from 740 m to 1,750 m above sea level. The system has been upgraded several times since its opening. In 1960 its passenger capacity was increased from 125 to 210 persons per hour. A new Wankbahn was built in 1982, opening on 18 December, which increased the system&#39;s capacity to 1,000 persons per hour. Two 300 kW DC motors were installed to drive the cable.</p><br>
<p>The current Wankbahn is built in two sections, measuring 1,670 m and 1,330 m long respectively, with a maximum height of 45 m above the ground. The Wankbahn&#39;s 135 cabins each have a capacity of four people. They take approximately 18 minutes at a speed of 4 m per second to reach the summit station. A "Wankpass" permits year-round access to the cable car.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The grassy summit of the Wank is topped by a cross, set up in July 1904 by the Werdenfelser Heimat Partenkirchen society. Nearby is an observatory and the Wank-Haus, also known as the Alois Huber Haus, a mountain hut that provides food and accommodation to visitors. The Wank-Haus was built by the local branch of the German Alpine Association (DAV) in 1911. Its construction was originally proposed in 1894 and was approved by the Bavarian Forest Service in 1903. It was designed by the Partenkirchen DAV&#39;s Treasurer, Alois Huber, and work began in July 1910. It was opened on 28 May 1911 and was renamed after Huber following his death in 1922. It has since been renovated and upgraded on several occasions, most recently in 2006.</p><br>
<p>The summit is known for its views across the region, which provide views of Garmisch-Partenkirchen and a panorama of the Zugspitze and the Wetterstein mountain range. Patrons of Garmisch&#39;s spas sometimes take-in the sunshine at the summit as part of their Liegekur ("deckchair cure").</p><br>
<h3>Summit observatory</h3><br>
<p>The summit observatory, which is located at an altitude of 1,782 m, is an important scientific measuring station operated by the Institute for Meteorology and Climate Research of Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. Since 1972 it has measured a variety of atmospheric and climatic phenomena, including the levels of ozone, nitric oxide, sulphur dioxide and various hydrocarbons in the atmosphere as well as meteorological data such as the levels of temperature, dew point, relative humidity, pressure, wind, global and direct irradiance. It became part of the World Meteorological Organization&#39;s Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network in 1982. Supplementary meteorological stations have also been established at middle elevation (1,175 m above sea level) and in the valley at 735 m. This has enabled scientists to measure a range of natural phenomena including the transport of air pollutants in the region and a marked decline since 1990 in the amount of atmospheric mercury pollution, an effect which has been attributed to the post-1989 closure of polluting factories in the former Eastern Bloc states.</p><br>
<h2>Paragliding</h2><br>
<p>Cape Canaveral, from the Spanish Cabo Cañaveral, is a cape in Brevard County, Florida, United States, near the center of the state&#39;s Atlantic coast. Known as Cape Kennedy from 1963 to 1973, it lies east of Merritt Island, separated from it by the Banana River. It was discovered by the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León in 1513.</p><br>
<p>It is part of a region known as the Space Coast, and is the site of the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Since many USA spacecraft have been launched from both the station and the Kennedy Space Center on adjacent Merritt Island, the two are sometimes conflated with each other. In homage to its spacefaring heritage, the Florida Public Service Commission allocated area code 321 (as in a launch countdown) to the Cape Canaveral area.</p><br>
<p>Other features of the cape include the Cape Canaveral lighthouse and Port Canaveral, one of the busiest cruise ports in the world. The city of Cape Canaveral lies just south of the Port Canaveral District. Mosquito Lagoon, the Indian River, Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and Canaveral National Seashore are also features of this area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Humans have occupied the area for at least 12,000 years.</p><br>
<p>During the middle Archaic period, from 5000 BC to 2000 BC, the Mount Taylor period culture region covered northeast Florida, including the area around Cape Canaveral. Late in the Archaic period, from 2000 BC to 500 BC, the Mount Taylor culture was succeeded by the Orange culture, which was among the earliest cultures in North America to produce pottery. The Orange culture was followed by the St. Johns culture, from 500 BC until after European contact. The area around the Indian River was in the Indian River variant of the St. Johns culture, with influences from the Belle Glade culture to the south.</p><br>
<p>During the first Spanish colonial period the area around the Indian River, to the south of Cape Canaveral, was occupied by the Ais people, while the area around the Mosquito Lagoon, to the north of the Cape, was occupied by the Surruque people. The Surruque were allied with the Ais, but it is not clear whether the Surruque spoke a Timucua language, or a language related to the Ais language.</p><br>
<p>In the early 16th century, Cape Canaveral was noted on maps, although without being named. It was named by Spanish explorers in the first half of the 16th century as Cabo Cañareal. The name "Canaveral" (Cañaveral in Spanish, meaning "reed bed" or "sugarcane plantation") is the third oldest surviving European place name in the US. The first application of the name, according to the Smithsonian Institution, was from the 1521–1525 explorations of Spanish explorer Francisco Gordillo. A point of land jutting out into an area of the Atlantic Ocean with swift currents, it became a landing spot for many shipwrecked sailors. An early alternative name was "Cape of Currents". By at least 1564, the name appeared on maps.</p><br>
<p>English privateer John Hawkins and his journalist John Sparke gave an account of their landing at Cape Canaveral in the 16th century. A Presbyterian missionary was wrecked here and lived among the Indians. Other histories tell of French survivors from Jean Ribault&#39;s colony at Fort Caroline, whose ship the Trinité wrecked on the shores of Cape Canaveral in 1565, and built a fort from its timbers.</p><br>
<p>In December 1571, Pedro Menéndez was wrecked off the Coast of Cape Canaveral and encountered the Ais Indians. From 1605 to 1606, the Spanish Governor of Florida Pedro de Ibarra sent Alvaro Mexia on a diplomatic mission to the Ais Indian nation. The mission was a success; diplomatic ties were made and an agreement for the Ais to receive ransoms for all the shipwrecked sailors they returned.</p><br>
<p>The last naval battle of the Revolutionary War was fought off the shores of Cape Canaveral in 1783, between the USS Alliance and the HMS Sybill, the American frigate being captained by Captain John Barry.</p><br>
<p>The first Cape Canaveral Lighthouse was completed in January 1848 to warn ships of the coral shoals off the coast.</p><br>
<p>The hurricane of August 1885, pushed a "wall of water" over the barrier island (elevation, 10 ft) devastating Cape Canaveral and adjacent areas. The ocean waves flooded the homesteaders and discouraged further settlement in the area. The beach near the lighthouse was severely eroded prompting its relocation 1 mi west inland.</p><br>
<p>The 1890 graduating class of Harvard University started a gun club called the "Canaveral Club" at the Cape. This was founded by C.B. Horton of Boston and George H. Reed. A number of distinguished visitors including presidents Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison were reported to have stayed here. In the 1920s, the grand building fell in disrepair and later burned to the ground.</p><br>
<p>In the 20th century, several communities sprang up in Cape Canaveral with names like Canaveral, Canaveral Harbor, Artesia and De Soto Beach. While the area was predominantly a farming and fishing community, some visionaries saw its potential as a resort for vacationers. However, the stock market crash of 1929 hampered its development.</p><br>
<p>In the 1930s, a group of wealthy journalists started a community called "Journalista Beach", now called Avon by the Sea. The Brossier brothers built houses in this area and started a publication entitled the Evening Star Reporter that was the forerunner of the Orlando Sentinel.</p><br>
<p>Construction of Port Canaveral for military and commercial purposes was started in July 1950 and dedicated on November 4, 1953. Congress approved the construction of a deep-water port in 1929, half a century after it was first petitioned by the USA Navy in 1878. It is now the major deep-water port of Central Florida.</p><br>
<h3>Rocket launch site</h3><br>
<p>Cape Canaveral became the test site for missiles when the legislation for the Joint Long Range Proving Ground was passed by the 81st Congress and signed by President Harry Truman on May 11, 1949. Work began on May 9, 1950, under a contract with the Duval Engineering Company of Jacksonville, Florida, to build the Cape&#39;s first paved access road and its first permanent launch site.</p><br>
<p>The first rocket launched at the Cape was a V-2 rocket named Bumper 8 from Launch Complex 3 on July 24, 1950. On February 6, 1959, the first successful test firing of a Titan intercontinental ballistic missile was accomplished. NASA&#39;s Project Mercury and Gemini space flights were launched from Cape Canaveral, as were Apollo flights using the Saturn I and Saturn IB rockets.</p><br>
<p>Cape Canaveral was chosen for rocket launches to take advantage of the Earths rotation. The linear velocity of the Earths surface is greatest towards the equator; the relatively southerly location of the cape allows rockets to take advantage of this by launching eastward, in the same direction as the Earth&#39;s rotation. It is also highly desirable to have the downrange area sparsely populated, in case of accidents; an ocean is ideal for this. The east coast of Florida has logistical advantages over potential competing sites. The Spaceport Florida Launch Complex 46 of the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station is the easternmost near the tip of the cape.</p><br>
<h3>Name changes</h3><br>
<p>A post office in the area was built and listed in the USA Post Office application as "Artesia" and retained this name from 1893 to 1954. It was "Port Canaveral" from 1954 to 1962, and lastly the City of Cape Canaveral from 1962 to 1963, when a larger post office was built.</p><br>
<h4>Cape Kennedy</h4><br>
<p>From 1963 to 1973, the area had a different name when President Lyndon Johnson by executive order renamed the area "Cape Kennedy" after President John F. Kennedy, who had set the goal of landing on the moon. After Kennedys assassination in November 1963, his widow, Jacqueline Kennedy, suggested to President Johnson that renaming the Cape Canaveral facility would be an appropriate memorial. Johnson recommended the renaming of the entire cape, announced in a televised address six days after the assassination, on Thanksgiving evening. Accordingly, Cape Canaveral was officially renamed Cape Kennedy. Kennedys last visit to the space facility was on November 16, six days before his death</p><br>
<p>the final Mercury mission had concluded six months earlier.</p><br>
<p>Although the name change was approved by the USA Board on Geographic Names of the Department of the Interior in December 1963, it was not popular in Florida from the outset, especially in the bordering city of Cape Canaveral. In 1973, the Florida Legislature passed a law in May restoring the former 400-year-old name, and the Board went along. The name restoration to Cape Canaveral became official on October 9, 1973. Senator Ted Kennedy had stated in 1970 that it was a matter to be decided by the citizens of Florida.</p><br>
<p>The Gemini, Apollo, and first Skylab missions were all launched from "Cape Kennedy." The first manned launch under the restored name of "Cape Canaveral" was the final Skylab mission, on November 16, 1973.</p><br>
<p>Wolin  is the name both of a Polish island in the Baltic Sea, just off the Polish coast, and a town on that island. Administratively the island belongs to the West Pomeranian Voivodeship. Wolin is separated from the island of Usedom  by the Strait of Świna, and from mainland Pomerania by the Strait of Dziwna. The island has an area of 265 km² and its highest point is Mount Grzywacz at 116 m above sea level</p><br>
<p>Water from the river Odra (Oder) flows into the Szczecin Lagoon and from there through the Peene west of Usedom, Świna and Dziwna into the Bay of Pomerania in the Baltic Sea.</p><br>
<p>Most of the island consists of forests and postglacial hills. In the middle is the Wolin National Park. The island is a main tourist attraction of northwestern Poland, and it is crossed by several specially marked tourist trails, such as a 73 km trail from Misdroy to Dziwnówek. There is a main, electrified rail line, which connects Szczecin and Świnoujście, plus the international road E65 (national road 3 / S3 expressway) crosses the island.</p><br>
<p>The origins of the name are unknown, although it is likely of Slavic origin. In the old Slavic language the word wolyn meant a wetland.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The ford across the river Dzwina on which Wolin is located has been used as far back as the Stone age. Archaeological excavations of soil layers indicate that there was a settlement in the area during the Migration period, at the turn of the 5th and 6th centuries. The place was then abandoned for approximately one hundred years. At the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 9th century the area was leveled and a new settlement constructed. The earliest evidence of fortifications dates to the first half of the 9th century. In the second half of the 9th century there was a central fortified area and two suburbs, to the north and south of the center. These became enclosed and fortified between the end of the 9th and the 10th centuries.</p><br>
<p>A medieval document from the mid-9th century, called the Bavarian Geographer after its anonymous creator, mentions the Slavic tribe of Wolinians who had 70 strongholds at that time (Uelunzani civitates LXX). The town of Wolin was first mentioned in 965, by Ibrahim ibn Jakub, who referred to the place as Weltaba.</p><br>
<p>The period of greatest development during the medieval period occurred between the 9th and the 11th centuries. Around 896 AD a new port was constructed and the main part of the town acquired new, stronger fortifications, including a wooden palisade made of halved 50 centimeter wide tree trunks, a rampart and a retaining wall.</p><br>
<p>Archaeologists believe that in the Early Middle Ages Wolin was a great trade emporium, spreading along the shore for four kilometers and rivaling in importance Birka and Hedeby.</p><br>
<p>Around 972 the island became controlled by Poland, under prince Mieszko I. However, it has not been established if Wolin became part of Poland, or if it was a fief. Polish influences were not firm and they ended around 1007. In the following years Wolin became famous for its pirates, who would plunder ships cruising the Baltic. As a reprisal, in 1043 it was attacked by the Norwegian king Magnus the Good.</p><br>
<p>In the early 12th century the island, as part of the Pomeranian duchy, was captured by the Polish king Boleslaw III Wrymouth. Shortly after, the inhabitants of Wolin accepted Christianity, and in 1140 pope Innocent II created a diocese there, with its capital in the town of Wolin. In 1181 the dukes of Pomerania decided to accept the Holy Roman emperor as their liege lord instead of the Polish king.</p><br>
<p>In 1535 Wolin accepted Protestant Lutheranism. In 1630 the island was captured by Sweden. Later, Pomerania became part of Brandenburg-Prussia (later the Kingdom of Prussia). Wolin followed in 1679. From 1871, the town was part of Germany. After the German-induced Second World War and the Allied agreements that resulted in the transfer of Western Pomerania to Poland in 1945, the (German) population was forcibly expelled to Germany and was replaced with Poles who had been expelled from territories in eastern Poland annexed by the Soviet Union.</p><br>
<h3>Connection with Jomsborg and Vineta</h3><br>
<p>Archaeological finds on the island are not very rich but they dot an area of 20 hectares, making it the second largest Baltic marketplace of the Viking Age after Hedeby. Some scholars have speculated that Wolin may have been the basis for the semi-legendary settlements Jomsborg and Vineta. However, others have rejected the identification, or even the historical existence of Jomsborg and Vineta (for example, Gerard Labuda).</p><br>
<p>Gwyn Jones notes that the size of the town was exaggerated in contemporary sources, for example by Adam of Bremen who claimed Wolin/Jomsborg was "the largest town in Europe". Archaeological excavations however have found no evidence of a harbor big enough for 360 warships (as claimed by Adam) or of a major citadel. The town was inhabited by both Slavs and Scandinavians.</p><br>
<h2>Viking festival</h2><br>
<p>Annually, the island is home to Europe&#39;s biggest Germanic-Slavic Viking festival.</p><br>
<p>Kültepe  is an archaeological site in Kayseri Province, Turkey. The nearest modern city to Kültepe is Kayseri, about 20 km southwest. It consists of a tell, the actual Kültepe, and a lower town, where an Assyrian settlement was found. Its name in Assyrian texts from the 20th century BC was Kaneš; the later Hittites mostly called it Neša, occasionally Aniša.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Kaneš, inhabited continuously from the Chalcolithic to Roman times, flourished as an important Hattic, Hittite and Hurrian city, containing a large kārum (merchant colony) of the Old Assyrian Empire from ca. 21st to 18th centuries BC. This kārum appears to have served as "the administrative and distribution centre of the entire Assyrian colony network in Anatolia." A late (c 1400 BC) witness to an old tradition includes a king of Kaneš called Zipani among seventeen local city-kings who rose up against Naram-Sin of Akkad (ruled c.2254-2218 BC). It is the site of discovery of the earliest traces of the Hittite language, and the earliest attestation of any Indo-European language, dated to the 20th century BC.</p><br>
<h3>Kaneša</h3><br>
<p>The king of Zalpuwa, Uhna, raided Kanes, after which the Zalpuwans carried off the citys Šiuš idol. Pithana, the king of Kussara, conquered Neša "in the night, by force", but "did not do evil to anyone in it." Neša revolted against the rule of Pithanas son, Anitta, but Anitta quashed the revolt and made Neša his capital. Anitta further invaded Zalpuwa, captured its king Huzziya, and recovered the Šiuš idol for Neša.</p><br>
<p>In the 17th century BC, Anitta&#39;s descendants moved their capital to Hattusa, which Anitta had cursed, thus founding the line of Hittite kings. The inhabitants thus referred to the Hittite language as Nešili, "the language of Neša".</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>In 1925, Bedřich Hrozný excavated Kültepe and found over 1000 cuneiform tablets, some of which ended up in Prague and in Istanbul.</p><br>
<p>Modern archaeological work began in 1948, when Kültepe was excavated by a team from the Turkish Historical Society and the General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums. The team was led by Tahsin Özgüç until his death, in 2005.</p><br>
<p>Level IV-III. Little excavation has been done for these levels, which represent the kârums first habitation (Mellaart 1957). No writing is attested, and archaeologists assume that both levels inhabitants were illiterate.</p><br>
<p>Level II, 1974 BC - 1836 BC (Mesopotamian Middle Chronology according to Veenhof). Craftsmen of this time and place specialised in animal-shaped earthen drinking vessels, which were often used for religious rituals. Assyrian merchants then established a merchant colony (kârum) attached to the city, which was called "Kaneš". Bullae of Naram-Sin of Eshnunna have been found toward the end of this level (Ozkan 1993), which was burned to the ground.</p><br>
<p>Level Ib, 1798 BC - 1740 BC. After an interval of abandonment, the city was rebuilt over the ruins of the old and again became a prosperous trade center. The trade was under the control of Ishme-Dagan I, who was put in control of Assur when his father, Shamshi-Adad I, conquered Ekallatum and Assur. However, the colony was again destroyed by fire.</p><br>
<p>Level Ia. The city was reinhabited, but the Assyrian colony was no longer inhabited. The culture was early Hittite. Its name in Hittite became "Kaneša", which was more commonly contracted to "Neša".</p><br>
<p>Some attribute Level IIs burning to the conquest of the city of Assur by the kings of Eshnunna, but Bryce blames it on the raid of Uhna. Some attribute Level Ibs burning to the fall of Assur, other nearby kings and eventually to Hammurabi of Babylon.</p><br>
<p>To date, over 20,000 cuneiform tablets have been recovered from the site.</p><br>
<p>E. Bilgic and S Bayram, Ankara Kultepe Tabletleri II, Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1995,</p><br>
<h3>Kârum Kaneš</h3><br>
<p>The quarter of the city that most interests historians is the kārum, a portion of the city that was, during the Chalcolithic, set aside by local officials for the early Assyrian merchants to use without paying taxes as long as the goods remained inside the kārum. The term kārum means "port" in Akkadian, the lingua franca of the time, but its meaning was later extended to refer to any trading colony whether or not it bordered water.</p><br>
<p>Several other cities in Anatolia also had a kārum, but the largest was Kaneš, whose important kārum was inhabited by soldiers and merchants from Assyria for hundreds of years. They traded local tin and wool for luxury items, foodstuffs, spices and woven fabrics from the Assyrian homeland and Elam.</p><br>
<p>The remains of the kārum form a large circular mound 500 m in diameter and about 20 m above the plain (a tell). The kārum settlement is the result of several superimposed stratigraphic periods. New buildings were constructed on top of the remains of the earlier periods so there is a deep stratigraphy from prehistoric times to the early Hittite period.</p><br>
<p>The kārum was destroyed by fire at the end of both levels II and Ib. The inhabitants left most of their possessions behind, to be found by modern archaeologists.</p><br>
<p>The findings have included numerous baked-clay tablets, some of which were enclosed in clay envelopes stamped with cylinder seals. The documents record common activities, such as trade between the Assyrian colony and the city-state of Assur and between Assyrian merchants and local people. The trade was run by families rather than the state. The Kültepe texts are the oldest documents from Anatolia. Although they are written in Old Assyrian, the Hittite loanwords and names in the texts are the oldest record of any Indo-European language (see also Ishara). Most of the archaeological evidence is typical of Anatolia rather than of Assyria, but the use of both cuneiform and the dialect is the best indication of Assyrian presence.</p><br>
<h3>Dating of Waršama Sarayi</h3><br>
<p>At Level II, the destruction was so total that no wood survived for dendrochronological studies. In 2003, researchers from Cornell University dated wood in level Ib from the rest of the city, built centuries earlier. The dendrochronologists date the bulk of the wood from buildings of the Waršama Sarayi to 1832 BC, with further refurbishments up to 1779 BC.</p><br>
<p>The Adirondack Mountains form a massif in northeastern New York, United States. Its boundaries correspond to the boundaries of Adirondack Park. The mountains form a roughly circular dome, about 160 mi in diameter and about 1 mi high. The current relief owes much to glaciation.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The earliest written use of the name, spelled Rontaks, was in 1724 by the French missionary Joseph-François Lafitau. He defined it as tree eaters. In the Mohawk language, Adirondack means porcupine, an animal that may eat bark. The Mohawks had no written language at the time so Europeans have used various phonetic spellings. An English map from 1761 labels it simply Deer Hunting Country and the mountains were named Adirondacks in 1837 by Ebenezer Emmons.</p><br>
<p>People first arrived in the area following the settlement of the Americas around 10,000 BC. The Algonquian peoples and the Mohawk nation used the Adirondacks for hunting and travel but did not settle. European colonisation of the area began with Samuel de Champlain visiting what is now Ticonderoga in 1609, and Jesuit missionary Isaac Jogues visited the region in 1642.</p><br>
<p>In 1664 the land came under the control of the English when New Netherland was ceded to The Crown. After the American Revolutionary War, the lands passed to the people of New York State. Needing money to discharge war debts, the new government sold nearly all the original public acreage about 7 million acres for pennies an acre. Lumbermen were welcomed to the interior, with few restraints, resulting in massive deforestation.</p><br>
<p>For the history of the area since industrialization, see The History of Adirondack Park.</p><br>
<p>In 1989, part of the Adirondack region was designated by UNESCO as the Champlain-Adirondack Biosphere Reserve.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The rocks of the Adirondack mountains originated about two billion years ago as 50,000 feet (15,000 m) thick sediments at the bottom of a sea located near the equator. Because of continental drift these collided with Laurentia (the precursor of modern North America) in a mountain building episode known as the Grenville orogeny. During this time the sedimentary rock was changed into metamorphic rock. It is these Proterozoic minerals and lithologies that make up the core of the massif. Minerals of interest include:</p><br>
<p>wollastonite, mined near Harrisville</p><br>
<p>magnetite and hematite, formerly mined at the Benson Mines, Lyon Mountain, Mineville, Tawahus, and Witherbee.</p><br>
<p>graphite, mined near Hague and Ticonderoga.</p><br>
<p>garnet, mined at the Barton Mine, north of Gore Mountain.</p><br>
<p>anorthosite, visible in road cuts on the New York State Route 3 between Saranac Lake and Tupper Lake.</p><br>
<p>marble</p><br>
<p>zinc: The Balmat-Edwards district on the northwest flank of the massif also in St. Lawrence County was a major zinc ore deposit</p><br>
<p>titanium was mined at Tawahus.</p><br>
<p>Note that even though they all resulted from the Grenville orogeny, neither the Adirondacks (now uplifted by a hot spot) nor the Catskills or Poconos (a dissected plateau formed from delta deposits) are part of the Appalachian Mountain chain (faulted and folded by continental collisions).</p><br>
<p>Around 600 million years ago, as Laurentia drifted away from Baltica (European Craton), the area began to be pulled apart forming the Iapetus Ocean. Faults developed, running north to north east which formed valleys and deep lakes. Examples visible today include the grabens Lake George and Schroon Lake. By this time the Grenville mountains had been eroded away and the area was covered by a shallow sea. Several thousand feet of sediment accumulated on the sea bed. Trilobites were the principal life-form of the sea bed, and fossil tracks can be seen in the Potsdam sandstone floor of the Paul Smiths Visitor Interpretive Center.</p><br>
<p>About 10 million years ago the region began to be uplifted. It has been lifted about 7000 feet (2100 m) and is continuing at about 2 millimetres per year, which is greater than the rate of denudation. The cause of the uplift is unknown, but geologists theorize that it is caused by a hot spot in the earth&#39;s crust. The occurrence of earthquake swarms near the center of the massif at Blue Mountain Lake may be evidence of this. Some of the earthquakes have exceeded 5 on the Richter magnitude scale.</p><br>
<p>Starting about 2.5 million years ago a cycle of Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods began which covered the area in ice. During the most recent episode, the Laurentide ice sheet covered most of northern North America between about 95,000 and c. 20,000 years ago. After this the climate warmed, but it took nearly 10,000 years for all of the 10,000 feet (3,000 m) thick layer of ice to melt. Evidence of this period includes:</p><br>
<p>Eskers: the Rainbow Lake esker bisects the eponymous lake and extends discontinuously for 85 miles. Another long discontinuous esker extends from Mountain Pond through Keese Mill, passing between Upper St. Regis Lake and the Spectacle Ponds, and continuing to Ochre, Fish, and Lydia Ponds in the St. Regis Canoe Area. A 150 foot high esker bisects the Five Ponds Wilderness Area.</p><br>
<p>Glacial erratics: there is a large one at the Newcomb Visitor Information Centre next to the Rich Lake Trail.</p><br>
<p>Outwash plains</p><br>
<p>Kames</p><br>
<p>Moraines</p><br>
<p>The cirques that characterize the Whiteface Mountain.</p><br>
<p>Outwash plains: St. Regis Canoe Area is an outwash plain pitted with kettle holes.</p><br>
<p>Soils in the area are generally thin, sandy, acidic, and infertile, having developed since the glacial retreat.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The Adirondack Mountains form the southernmost part of the Eastern forest-boreal transition ecoregion. They are heavily forested, and contain one of the southernmost distribution taiga in North America. The forests of the Adirondacks include spruce, pine and deciduous trees. Lumbering, once an important industry, has been much restricted by the creation of the park.</p><br>
<p>The mountains include many wetlands, of which there are three kinds:</p><br>
<p>Swamps, any wetland including trees and shrubs</p><br>
<p>Marshes, wetlands with water stagnation. These may support bullfrogs and spring peepers, spotted salamanders, great blue heron, American bittern, and painted turtles. Pickerel weed often forms large colonies.</p><br>
<p>Bogs, characterized by plants like sphagnum moss, orchids, and pitcher plants</p><br>
<p>Common birds include the boreal chickadees, gray jays, spruce grouse, black-backed woodpeckers, common loons and crossbills.</p><br>
<p>Nearly 60 percent of the park is covered with northern hardwood forest. Above 2600 feet (790 m) conditions are too poor for hardwoods to thrive, and these trees become mixed with or replaced by balsam fir and red spruce. Above 3500 feet (1000 m) black spruce replace red. Higher still only trees short enough to be covered in snow during the winter can survive.</p><br>
<p>Only a tiny fraction of the area above the tree line is classified as having an alpine climate.</p><br>
<p>The Great Dividing Range, or the Eastern Highlands, is Australia&#39;s most substantial mountain range and the third longest land-based range in the world. It stretches more than 3,500 km from Dauan Island off the northeastern tip of Queensland, running the entire length of the eastern coastline through New South Wales, then into Victoria and turning west, before finally fading into the central plain at the Grampians in western Victoria. The width of the range varies from about 160 km to over 300 km.</p><br>
<p>The sharp rise between the coastal lowlands and the eastern uplands has affected Australia&#39;s climate, mainly due to orographic precipitation, and these areas of highest relief have revealed an impressive gorge country.</p><br>
<h2>Terminology</h2><br>
<p>The Dividing Range does not consist of a single mountain range. It consists of a complex of mountain ranges, plateaus, upland areas and escarpments with an ancient and complex geological history. The physiographic division name for the landmass is called the East Australian Cordillera. In some places the terrain is relatively flat, consisting of very low hills. Typically the highlands range from 300 m to 1,600 m in height.</p><br>
<p>The mountains and plateaus, which consist of limestones, sandstone, quartzite, schists and dolomite, have been created by faulting and folding processes.</p><br>
<p>The crest of the range is defined by the watershed or boundary between the drainage basins of rivers which drain directly eastward into the Pacific Ocean, or southward into Bass Strait, and those rivers which drain into the Murray–Darling river system towards the west and south. In the north, the rivers on the west side of the range drain towards the Gulf of Carpentaria.</p><br>
<p>The higher and more rugged parts of the "range" do not necessarily form part of the crest of the range, but may be branches and offshoots from it. The term "Great Dividing Range" may refer specifically to the watershed crest of the range, or to the entire upland complex including all of the hills and mountains between the east coast of Australia and the central plains and lowlands. At some places it can be up to 400 km wide. Notable ranges and other features which form part of the range complex have their own distinctive names.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Great Dividing Range was formed during the Carboniferous period—over 300 million years ago—when Australia collided with what are now parts of South America and New Zealand. The range has experienced significant erosion since. (See Geology of Australia.)</p><br>
<p>For tens of thousands of years prior to British colonisation the ranges were home to various Aboriginal Australian nations and clans. Evidence remains in some places of their traditional way of life including decorated caves, campsites and trails used to travel between the coastal and inland regions. Many descendants of these nations still exist today and remain the traditional owners and custodians of their lands.</p><br>
<p>After British colonisation in 1788, the ranges were an obstacle to exploration and settlement by the British settlers. Although not high, parts of the highlands were very rugged. Crossing the Blue Mountains was particularly challenging due to the mistaken idea that the creeks should be followed rather than the ridges, and almost impenetrable, labyrinthine, sandstone mountains.</p><br>
<p>Knowing that local Aboriginal people already had established routes crossing the range and by making use of Aboriginal walking trails, a usable ridge-top route was finally discovered by Europeans directly westward from Sydney across the Blue Mountains to Bathurst by an expedition jointly led by Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Charles Wentworth. Towns in the Blue Mountains were later named after each of these men. This was the start of the development of the agricultural districts of inland New South Wales. A road was built to Blaxland by convicts within six months. Easier routes to inland New South Wales were discovered towards Goulburn to the southwest, and westwards from Newcastle.</p><br>
<p>Subsequent explorations were made across and around the ranges by Allan Cunningham, John Oxley, Hamilton Hume, Paul Edmund Strzelecki, Ludwig Leichhardt and Thomas Mitchell. These explorers were mainly concerned with finding and appropriating good agricultural land.</p><br>
<p>By the late 1830s the most fertile rangelands adjacent to the mountains ranges had been explored, appropriated from the traditional inhabitants and some settled. These included the Gippsland and Riverina regions in the south, up to the Liverpool Plains and the Darling Downs in the north.</p><br>
<p>Various road and railway routes were subsequently established through many parts of the ranges, although many areas remain remote to this day. For example, in eastern Victoria there is only one major road crossing the highlands from north to south, the Great Alpine Road.</p><br>
<h2>Natural components</h2><br>
<p>Parts of the highlands consisting of relatively flat and, by Australian standards, well-watered land were developed for agricultural and pastoral uses. Such areas include the Atherton Tableland and Darling Downs in Queensland, and the Northern Tablelands, Southern Highlands and Southern Tablelands in New South Wales. Other parts of the highlands are too rugged for agriculture and have been used for forestry. Many parts of the highlands which were not developed are now included in National Parks.</p><br>
<p>All of mainland Australia&#39;s alpine areas, including its highest mountain, Mount Kosciuszko (2,228 m AHD), are part of this range, called the Main Range. The highest areas in southern New South Wales and eastern Victoria are known as the Australian Alps.</p><br>
<p>The central core of the Great Dividing Range is dotted with hundreds of peaks and is surrounded by many smaller mountain ranges or spurs, canyons, valleys and plains of regional significance. Some of the major plains include the High Plains of South-Eastern Australia, the Southern Highlands the Central Highlands and Bogong High Plains of Victoria. Other tablelands considered part of the Great dividing range are the Atherton Tableland, Canberra wine region and the Southern Tablelands.</p><br>
<p>The Dandenong Ranges, Barrington Tops, Bunya Mountains, Blue Mountains, Liverpool Range, McPherson Ranges and the Moonbi Range are some of the smaller spurs and ranges that make up the greater dividing range. Other notable ranges and tablelands which form part of the Great Dividing Range include the Liverpool Range, Mount Royal Range and the Monaro District. Whilst some of the peaks of the highlands reach respectable heights of a little over 2,000 metres, the age of the range and its erosion mean that most of the mountains are not very steep, and virtually all peaks can be reached without mountaineering equipment.</p><br>
<p>In some areas, such as the Snowy Mountains, Victorian Alps, the Scenic Rim and the eastern escarpments of the New England region, the highlands form a significant barrier. The eastern escarpment is the site of many spectacular waterfalls which were formed by rivers plunging off the tablelands. In other areas the slopes are gentle and in places the range is barely perceptible.</p><br>
<p>Well known passes on the range include Coxs Gap, Cunninghams Gap, Dead Horse Gap, Nowlands Gap, and Spicers Gap.</p><br>
<p>Major cities located on the upland areas of the range include Canberra, Toowoomba and the outer suburbs of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Cairns in north Queensland. Many towns and cities are located on the range, and also in lowland areas and foothills adjacent to the highlands. There is a strong natural history and cultural attachment to the Dividing Range region in towns and on many, sometimes remote landholdings.</p><br>
<p>Some of the towns/cities located on the range include:</p><br>
<p>Canberra - ACT</p><br>
<p>Goulburn - NSW</p><br>
<p>Cooma - NSW</p><br>
<p>Jindabyne - NSW</p><br>
<p>Katoomba - NSW</p><br>
<p>Oberon - NSW</p><br>
<p>Bowral - NSW</p><br>
<p>Bathurst - NSW</p><br>
<p>Orange - NSW</p><br>
<p>Armidale - NSW</p><br>
<p>Scone - NSW</p><br>
<p>Walcha - NSW</p><br>
<p>Guyra - NSW</p><br>
<p>Tenterfield - NSW</p><br>
<p>Caboolture - QLD</p><br>
<p>Toowoomba - QLD</p><br>
<p>Stanthorpe - QLD</p><br>
<p>Warwick - QLD</p><br>
<p>Kingaroy - QLD</p><br>
<p>Biloela - QLD</p><br>
<p>Emerald - QLD</p><br>
<p>Moranbah - QLD</p><br>
<p>Atherton - QLD</p><br>
<p>Mareeba - QLD</p><br>
<p>Omeo - VIC</p><br>
<p>Healesville - VIC</p><br>
<p>Gisborne - VIC</p><br>
<p>Ballarat - VIC</p><br>
<p>Ararat - VIC</p><br>
<h3>Water catchments</h3><br>
<p>The lower reaches are used for forestry, an activity that causes friction with conservationists. The range is also the source of virtually all of eastern Australia&#39;s water supply, both through runoff caught in dams, and throughout much of Queensland, through the Great Artesian Basin.</p><br>
<p>Valleys along the chain of mountains have yielded a water source for important reservoirs and water supply projects such as the Upper Nepean Scheme, Snowy Mountains Scheme and Warragamba Dam. The Bradfield Scheme has been mooted as a way to transport water from the tropics in coastal Queensland south to dryer regions.</p><br>
<p>The Great Dividing Range creates the drainage basins of the Australian south-east coast drainage division and the Australian north-east coast drainage division, whose water flows to the east coast and into the Pacific Ocean, Tasman Sea, and Bass Strait with the westerly Murray–Darling basin which flow inland, away from the coast into the interior plains.</p><br>
<p>Some of the rivers which flow west of the ranges includes the Condamine River, Flinders River, Herbert River, Lachlan River, Macdonald River, Macintyre River and Namoi River. Rivers that flow north into the Murray–Darling Basin from Victoria include the Goulburn, Mitta Mitta, Kiewa, Ovens, King, Loddon and Campaspe rivers. Rivers that flow east into the Pacific Ocean include the Brisbane River, Burdekin River, Clarence River, Hastings River, Hawkesbury River, Hunter River, Macleay River, Mary River, Richmond River and the Shoalhaven River. Those that flow south, primarily through Victoria, include the Snowy, Cann, Tambo, Mitchell, Latrobe, Thomson, Yarra, Werribee, Hopkins and Glenelg rivers.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>At some high hill passes the range provides cool sites appropriate for vineyards.</p><br>
<h3>Railways</h3><br>
<p>The engineers of early rail passages across the Great Dividing Range needed to find low sections of the range to cross, as well as suitable, low gradient paths up the mountains on either side. Rail passages include:</p><br>
<p>Townsville-Mt Isa</p><br>
<p>Rockhampton-Winton</p><br>
<p>Brisbane–Toowoomba (1867)</p><br>
<p>Newcastle–Tamworth (c 1870), summit at Ardglen Tunnel (2073&#39; HASL)</p><br>
<p>Sydney–Lithgow (1869), crossing the range via the Blue Mountains (summit near Bell 3507&#39; HASL)</p><br>
<p>Sydney–Goulburn (1869), though the divide is actually a few kilometres further west near the crossing with Parkesbourne Road near Cullerin. The next 300 km descending to Wagga Wagga was originally fast, but regrading in the 1920s introduced many curves.</p><br>
<p>Melbourne–Seymour, crossing the range near Heathcote Junction (1872)</p><br>
<p>Melbourne–Bendigo, crossing the range near Woodend (1862) (1093&#39; HASL)</p><br>
<p>Melbourne–Ararat (1875) via Ballarat</p><br>
<p>Sandy Hollow–Gulgong (started 1930s, completed 1980s) - lowest crossing in NSW.</p><br>
<h3>Road transport</h3><br>
<p>Many of Australia&#39;s highways such as the Alpine Way, Great Alpine Road, Hume Highway, Great Western Highway, Capricorn Highway, Cunningham Highway, New England Highway, Oxley Highway, Warrego Highway, Waterfall Way, Thunderbolts Way, the Calder Highway, the Western Highway, and the Murray Valley Highway traverse parts of the range.</p><br>
<h3>Protected areas</h3><br>
<p>Much of the range lies within a succession of national parks and other reserves, most of the national parks are listed below, there are almost double the amount of state forests</p><br>
<p>Alpine National Park – VIC</p><br>
<p>Bald Rock National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Barrington Tops National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Baw Baw National Park – VIC</p><br>
<p>Blue Mountains National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Border Ranges National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Brindabella National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Brisbane Ranges National Park – VIC</p><br>
<p>Budawang National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Bunya Mountains National Park – QLD</p><br>
<p>Burrowa-Pine Mountain National Park – VIC</p><br>
<p>Cathedral Rock National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Conondale National Park – QLD</p><br>
<p>Cunnawarra National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Dandenong Ranges National Park – VIC</p><br>
<p>Deua National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Dharug National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Gibraltar Range National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Girraween National Park – QLD/NSW</p><br>
<p>Grampians National Park – VIC</p><br>
<p>Guy Fawkes River National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Heathcote-Graytown National Park</p><br>
<p>Kanangra-Boyd National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Kosciuszko National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Lake Eildon National Park – VIC</p><br>
<p>Lamington National Park – QLD</p><br>
<p>Morton National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Mount Buffalo National Park – VIC</p><br>
<p>Mummel Gulf National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Namadgi National Park – ACT</p><br>
<p>Nattai National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>New England National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Nowendoc National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Oxley Wild Rivers National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Snowy River National Park – VIC</p><br>
<p>South East Forests National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Springbrook National Park- QLD</p><br>
<p>Sundown National Park – QLD</p><br>
<p>Toonumbar National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Wadbilliga National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Washpool National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Werrikimbe National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Wollemi National Park – NSW</p><br>
<p>Yarra Ranges National Park – VIC</p><br>
<p>Yengo National Park – NSW</p><br>
<h2>Awards</h2><br>
<p>In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Great Dividing Range was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a "location".</p><br>
<p>The Albula Alps are a mountain range in the Alps of eastern Switzerland. They are considered to be part of the Central Eastern Alps, more specifically the Western Rhaetian Alps. They are named after the river Albula. The Albula Alps are separated from the Oberhalbstein Alps in the west by the Septimer Pass and the valley of the Sursés; from the Plessur Alps in the north-west by the Landwasser valley; from the Silvretta group in the north-east by the Flüela Pass; from the Bernina Range in the south-east by the Maloja Pass and the Inn valley .</p><br>
<p>The Albula Alps are drained by the rivers Albula, Gelgia, Landwasser and Inn.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<p>The main peaks of the Albula Alps are:</p><br>
<h2>Passes</h2><br>
<p>The Albula Alps are crossed by one railway tunnel, under the Albula Pass. The main mountain passes of the Albula Alps are:</p><br>
<p>The Lepontine Alps  are a mountain range in the north-western part of the Alps. They are located in Switzerland  and Italy .</p><br>
<p>The Simplon rail tunnel (from Brig to Domodossola) the Gotthard rail (from Erstfeld to Bodio) and Gotthard road tunnels (from Andermatt to Airolo) and the San Bernardino road tunnel are important transport arteries.</p><br>
<p>The eastern portion of the Lepontine Alps, from the St Gotthard Pass to the Splügen Pass, is sometimes named the Adula Alps, while the western part is historically referred to as the Ticino Alps.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The designation Lepontine Alps, derived from the Latin name of the Val Leventina, has long been somewhat vaguely applied to the Alpine ranges that enclose it, before being used for the whole range.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Following the line marking the division of the waters that flow into the Po from those that feed the Rhone or the Rhine, the main ridge of the Lepontine Alps describes a somewhat irregular curve, convex to the north, from the Simplon Pass to the Splugen Pass. With the single exception of the Monte Leone, overlooking the pass of the Simplon, the summits of this portion of the chain are much inferior in height to those of the neighbouring chains; but two peaks of the Adula group, culminating at the Rheinwaldhorn, exceed 11,000 ft in height.</p><br>
<p>The extensive region lying south of the main ridge is occupied by mountain ranges whose summits sometimes rival in height those of the dividing ridge, and which are cut through by deep valleys, three of which converge in the basins of Lake Maggiore and Lake Como, the deepest of all the lakes on the south side of the Alps. The most important of these valleys is the Val Leventina, or the Upper valley of the Ticino. This has been known from a remote antiquity because it leads to the Pass of St Gotthard, one of the easiest lines of communication between northern and southern Europe.</p><br>
<p>The Lepontine Alps are drained by the rivers Rhône in the west, Reuss in the north, Rhine (Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein) in the east and Ticino and Toce in the south.</p><br>
<h2>List of peaks</h2><br>
<p>The chief peaks of the Lepontine Alps are:</p><br>
<h2>Glaciers</h2><br>
<p>Main glaciers :</p><br>
<p>Gries Glacier</p><br>
<p>Paradies Glacier</p><br>
<p>Basòdino Glacier</p><br>
<h2>List of passes</h2><br>
<p>The chief passes of the Lepontine Alps are:</p><br>
<p>The Dolomites  are a mountain range located in northeastern Italy. They form a part of the Southern Limestone Alps and extend from the River Adige in the west to the Piave Valley  in the east. The northern and southern borders are defined by the Puster Valley and the Sugana Valley . The Dolomites are nearly equally shared between the provinces of Belluno, South Tyrol and Trentino.</p><br>
<p>There are also mountain groups of similar geological structure that spread over the River Piave to the east – Dolomiti d&#39;Oltrepiave; and far away over the Adige River to the west – Dolomiti di Brenta (Western Dolomites). There is also another smaller group called Piccole Dolomiti (Little Dolomites) located between the provinces of Trentino, Verona and Vicenza (see map).</p><br>
<p>The Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park and many other regional parks are located in the Dolomites. In August 2009, the Dolomites were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The Dolomites, also known as the "Pale Mountains", take their name from the carbonate rock dolomite, itself named for 18th-century French mineralogist Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu (1750–1801), who was the first to describe the mineral.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During the First World War, the front line between the Italian and Austro-Hungarian forces ran through the Dolomites, where mines were used extensively. There are now open-air war museums at Cinque Torri (Five Towers) and Mount Lagazuoi. Many people visit the Dolomites to climb the vie ferrate, protected paths created during the war.</p><br>
<p>A number of long-distance footpaths traverse the Dolomites. They are called alte vie (high paths), and are numbered from 1 to 8. The trails take on the order of a week to walk, and are served by numerous rifugi (huts). The first and perhaps most renowned is the Alta Via 1.</p><br>
<p>Radiocarbon dating has been used in the Alta Badia region to demonstrate a connection between landslide activity and climate change.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The region is commonly divided into the Western and Eastern Dolomites, separated by a line following the Val Badia – Campolongo Pass – Cordevole Valley (Agordino) axis.</p><br>
<h3>Current classification</h3><br>
<p>The Dolomites may be divided into the following ranges:</p><br>
<p>Sella</p><br>
<p>Marmolada</p><br>
<p>Tofane</p><br>
<p>Langkofel Group</p><br>
<p>Geisler Group</p><br>
<p>Peitlerkofel Group</p><br>
<p>Puez Group</p><br>
<p>Fanes Group</p><br>
<p>Schlern Group</p><br>
<p>Rosengarten</p><br>
<p>Latemar</p><br>
<p>Pala</p><br>
<p>Lüsen Mountains</p><br>
<p>Civetta</p><br>
<p>Pelmo</p><br>
<p>Marmarole</p><br>
<p>Cadini Group</p><br>
<p>Cristallo Group</p><br>
<p>Sorapiss</p><br>
<p>Antelao</p><br>
<p>Bosconero</p><br>
<p>Vette Feltrine</p><br>
<p>Schiara</p><br>
<p>Prague Dolomites</p><br>
<p>Sexten Dolomites</p><br>
<p>Friulan Dolomites</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The Dolomites are renowned for skiing in the winter months and mountain climbing, hiking, cycling, and BASE jumping, as well as paragliding and hang gliding in summer and late spring/early autumn. Free climbing has been a tradition in the Dolomites since 1887, when 17-year-old Georg Winkler soloed the first ascent of the pinnacle Die Vajolettürme. The main centres include: Rocca Pietore alongside the Marmolada Glacier, which lies on the border of Trentino and Veneto, the small towns of Alleghe, Falcade, Auronzo, Cortina d&#39;Ampezzo and the villages of Arabba, Urtijëi and San Martino di Castrozza, as well as the whole of the Fassa, Gardena and Badia valleys.</p><br>
<p>The Maratona dles Dolomites, an annual single-day road bicycle racing race covering seven mountain passes of the Dolomites, occurs in the first week of July.</p><br>
<p>Other characteristic places are:</p><br>
<p>Mount Pasubio and Strada delle 52 Gallerie (a military mule road built during World War I with 52 tunnels)</p><br>
<p>Altopiano di Asiago and Calà del Sasso, with 4444 steps, the world&#39;s longest staircase open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Major peaks</h2><br>
<h2>Major passes</h2><br>
<h2>Major parks</h2><br>
<p>Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park 77,865 acre</p><br>
<p>Parco naturale regionale delle Dolomiti d&#39;Ampezzo 27,675 acre</p><br>
<p>Naturpark Fanes-Sennes-Prags 25,680 hectare</p><br>
<p>Parco naturale Paneveggio – Pale di San Martino 48,680 acre</p><br>
<p>Naturpark Schlern-Rosengarten 6,796 hectare</p><br>
<p>Naturpark Sextener Dolomiten 28,750 acre</p><br>
<p>Naturpark Puez-Geisler 10,196 hectare</p><br>
<p>Parco naturale provinciale dell&#39; Adamello-Brenta 153,320 acre</p><br>
<p>Parco naturale regionale delle Dolomiti Friulane</p><br>
<h2>Panoramic view</h2><br>
<p>The Dauphiné Alps  are a group of mountain ranges in southeastern France, west of the main chain of the Alps. Mountain ranges within the Dauphiné Alps include the Massif des Écrins , Belledonne, the Taillefer range and the mountains of Matheysine.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The Dauphiné is a former French province whose area roughly corresponded to that of the present departments of :Isère, :Drôme, and :Hautes-Alpes.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>They are separated from the Cottian Alps in the east by the Col du Galibier and the upper Durance valley; from the western Graian Alps (Vanoise Massif) in the north-east by the river Arc; from the lower ranges Vercors Plateau and Chartreuse Mountains in the west by the rivers Drac and Isère. Many peaks rise to more than 10,000 feet (3,050 m), with Barre des Écrins (4,102 m) the highest.</p><br>
<p>Administratively the French part of the range belongs to the French departments of Isère, Hautes-Alpes and Savoie.</p><br>
<p>The whole range is drained by the Rhone river through its tributaries.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<p>The chief peaks of the Dauphiné Alps are:</p><br>
<h2>Passes</h2><br>
<p>The chief passes of the Dauphiné Alps are:</p><br>
<p>The Maritime Alps  are a mountain range in the southwestern part of the Alps. They form the border between the French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d&#39;Azur and the Italian regions of Piedmont and Liguria. They are the southernmost part of the Alps.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Administratively the range is divided between the Italian provinces of Cuneo and Imperia (eastern slopes) and the French department of Alpes-Maritimes (western slopes).</p><br>
<p>The Maritime Alps are drained by the rivers Roya, Var and Verdon and their tributaries on the French side; by the Stura di Demonte and other tributaries of the Tanaro and Po on the Italian side. There are many attractive perched villages, such as Belvédère at the entrance to the spectacular Gordolasque valley, some concealing unexpected architectural riches (for example in the south there are numerous churches decorated with murals and altar pieces by primitive Niçois painters).</p><br>
<h3>Borders</h3><br>
<p>The borders of the Maritime Alps are (anticlockwise):</p><br>
<p>Vermenagna creek, Col de Tende - which connects them with the Ligurian Alps - and Roya (east)</p><br>
<p>Mediterranean sea and Var valley (south)</p><br>
<p>Verdon, Col d&#39;Allos - which connects them with Provence Alps and Prealps - and Ubaye (west)</p><br>
<p>Colle della Maddalena (which connects them with the Cottian Alps) and Stura di Demonte (north).</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<p>The main peaks of the Maritime Alps are:</p><br>
<h2>Passes</h2><br>
<p>The chief passes of the Maritime Alps are:</p><br>
<h2>Nature conservation</h2><br>
<p>The French Mercantour National Park (central area:68,500 ha + peripheral area:140,000 ha ) is part of the Maritime Alps as well as the Parco naturale delle Alpi Marittime, an Italian regional nature park of 28,455 ha.</p><br>
<p>The Glarus Alps  are a mountain range in central Switzerland. They are bordered by the Uri Alps and the Schwyz Alps to the west, the Lepontine Alps to the south, the Appenzell Alps to the northeast. The eastern part of the Glarus Alps contains a major thrust fault which was declared a geologic UNESCO world heritage site .</p><br>
<p>The Glarus Alps extend well beyond the canton of Glarus, including parts of the cantons of Uri, Graubünden, and St Gallen. Conversely, not all the mountains in the canton of Glarus are part of the Glarus Alps, with those to the north of the Urner Boden and to the west of the valley of the river Linth considered to be part of the Schwyz Alps.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The main chain of the Glarus Alps can be divided into six minor groups, separated from each other by passes, the lowest of which exceeds 7,500 ft. The westernmost of these is the Crispalt, a rugged range including many peaks of nearly equal height. The highest of these are the Piz Giuv (3,096 m) and Piz Nair. The name Crispalt is given to a southern, but secondary, peak of Piz Giuv, measuring 3,070 m. West of the main group is the Rienzenstock, while a northern outlyer culminates in the Bristen. East of the Crispalt, the Chrüzli Pass separates this from the rather higher mass of the Oberalpstock (3,328 m).</p><br>
<p>Here occurs a partial break in the continuity of the chain. The crest of the snowy range connecting the Oberalpstock with the Tödi nowhere sinks to 9,000 feet, but makes a sweep convex to the north, forming a semicircular recess, whose numerous torrents are all poured into the Rhine through the Val Russein below Disentis. Two glacier passes lead over this part of the chain — one to west, over the Brunnigletscher to the Maderanertal; the other to the north-east, over the Sand Glacier, to the Linthal.</p><br>
<p>The Tödi, the highest of the range and of north-eastern Switzerland (3,614 m), is attended by numerous secondary peaks that arise from the extensive snow-fields surrounding the central mountain. A very considerable outlyer, whose chief summits are the Schärhorn and the Gross Windgällen, belonging to the canton of Uri, is connected with the Tödi by the range of the Clariden, north to the Hüfi Glacier. A less important branch encloses the Biferten Glacier, and terminates in the Selbsanft, south of Tierfehd. Towards the valley of the Vorderrhein a high promontory stretches nearly due south from the central peaks of the Tödi, and is crowned by the summit of the Piz Posta Biala. Another considerable ramification of the same mass terminates farther to the east in the peak of the Cavistrau.</p><br>
<p>The Kisten Pass separates the Tödi group from the Hausstock, whose summit attains 3,158 m; a branch of this latter group forms the range of the Kärpf in the canton of Glarus. The Hausstock is cut off from the rather lower but more extended mass of the Vorab by the Panixer Pass (7,907 ft). Numerous summits, of which the Vorab proper and Piz Grisch are the most important, approach very near, but do not quite attain to 10,000 feet.</p><br>
<p>The eastern limit of the latter group is marked by the — the most frequented of those connecting the Canton Glarus with the Vorderrhein — beyond which arises a wide-stretching mass of rock and glacier, which is part of the Glarus thrust and culminates at Piz Sardona. This mass is cleft by a deep valley — the Calfeisental: one branch, culminating in the Pizol (2,844 m), extends east over Pfäfers, while another, including the highest peak of the canton of St. Gallen, the Ringelspitz (3,247 m), runs due east to the low Kunkels Pass (1,357 m), separating this range from the Calanda.</p><br>
<h2>Principal summits</h2><br>
<h2>Glaciers</h2><br>
<p>Main glaciers :</p><br>
<p>Hüfi Glacier</p><br>
<p>Limmern Glacier</p><br>
<p>Biferten Glacier</p><br>
<p>Vorab Glacier</p><br>
<h2>Passes</h2><br>
<p>The chief passes of the Tödi Range, from the Oberalp Pass to the Klausen Pass, are:</p><br>
<p>The Cottian Alps ; are a mountain range in the southwestern part of the Alps. They form the border between France  and Italy . The Fréjus Road Tunnel and Fréjus Rail Tunnel between Modane and Susa are important transportation arteries between France  and Italy .</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Cottian comes from Marcus Julius Cottius, a king of the tribes inhabiting that mountainous region in the 1st century BC. These tribes had previously opposed but later made peace with Julius Caesar. Cottius was succeeded by his son, also named Marcus Julius Cottius, who was granted the title of king by the emperor Claudius.</p><br>
<p>On his death, Nero annexed his kingdom as the province of Alpes Cottiae.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>For a long part of the Middle Ages the Cottian Alps were divided between the Duchy of Savoy, which controlled their northern part and the easternmost slopes, and the Dauphiné, which at the time was independent from France. The Dauphins also held, in addition to the southwestern slopes of the range (Briançon and Queyras, now on the French side), the upper part of some of the valleys that were tributaries of the Po River (Valle di Susa, Chisone valley, Varaita Valley). The Alpine territory of Dauphiné, known as Escartons, used to have a limited autonomy and elected its own parliament. This semi-autonomous status lasted also after the annexation of the Dauphiné to France (1349), and was only abolished in 1713 due to the Treaty of Utrecht, which assigned to the House of Savoy all the mountainous area on the eastern side of the Cottian Alps.</p><br>
<p>After the treaty annexing Nice and Savoy to France, signed in Turin in March 1860 (Treaty of Turin), the north-western slopes of the range became part of the French republic.</p><br>
<p>Two eastern valleys of the Cottian Alps (Pellice and Germanasca) have been for centuries a kind of sanctuary for the Waldensians, a Christian movement founded by Peter Waldo and which was persecuted as heretical from the 12th century onwards.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Administratively the range is divided between the Italian province of Cuneo and the Metropolitan City of Turin (the eastern slopes), and the French departments of Savoie, Hautes-Alpes, and Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (the western slopes).</p><br>
<p>The Cottian Alps are drained by the rivers Durance and Arc and their tributaries on the French side; and by the Dora Riparia and other tributaries of the Po on the Italian side.</p><br>
<h3>Borders</h3><br>
<p>The borders of the Cottian Alps are (clockwise):</p><br>
<p>the Maddalena Pass to the south, which connects the Cottian Alps with the Maritime Alps</p><br>
<p>the Ubayette Valley, the Ubaye Valley, the Serre-Ponçon Lake, the high Durance Valley, and the Guisane Valley to the southwest</p><br>
<p>the Col du Galibier to the west, which connects the Cottian Alps with the Dauphiné Alps</p><br>
<p>the Valloirette Valley, the Maurienne Valley, and the Chardoux Creek to the northwest</p><br>
<p>the Mont Cenis Pass to the north, which connects the Cottian Alps with the Graian Alps</p><br>
<p>Mont Cenis Lake, the Cenischia Valley, the Dora Riparia Valley, the Po Plain, and the Varaita Valley to the east.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<p>The chief peaks of the Cottian Alps are:</p><br>
<h2>Passes</h2><br>
<p>The chief passes of the Cottian Alps are:</p><br>
<p>The Pennine Alps , also known as the Valais Alps, are a mountain range in the western part of the Alps. They are located in Switzerland  and Italy .</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Italian side is drained by the rivers Dora Baltea, Sesia and Toce, tributaries of the Po. The Swiss side is drained by the Rhône.</p><br>
<p>The Great St Bernard Tunnel, under the Great St Bernard Pass, leads from Martigny, Switzerland to Aosta.</p><br>
<h2>Morphology</h2><br>
<p>The main chain (watershed between the Mediterranean Sea and Adriatic Sea) runs from west to east on the border between Italy (south) and Switzerland (north). From Mont Vélan, the first high summit east of St Bernard Pass, the chain rarely goes below 3000 metres and contains many four-thousanders such as Matterhorn or Monte Rosa. The valleys are quite similar on both side of the border, being generally oriented perpendicular to the main chain and descending progressively into the Rhône Valley on the north and the Aosta Valley on the south. Unlike many other mountain ranges, the higher peaks are often located outside the main chain and found themselves between the northern valleys (Grand Combin, Weisshorn, Mischabel, Weissmies).</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<p>The chief peaks of the Pennine Alps are:</p><br>
<h2>Glaciers</h2><br>
<p>Main glaciers:</p><br>
<p>Gorner Glacier</p><br>
<p>Corbassière Glacier</p><br>
<p>Findel Glacier</p><br>
<p>Zmutt Glacier</p><br>
<p>Zinal Glacier</p><br>
<p>Otemma Glacier</p><br>
<p>Allalin Glacier</p><br>
<p>Ferpècle Glacier</p><br>
<p>Fee Glacier</p><br>
<p>Mont Miné Glacier</p><br>
<p>Ried Glacier</p><br>
<p>Turtmann Glacier</p><br>
<p>Moiry Glacier</p><br>
<p>Arolla Glacier</p><br>
<p>Moming Glacier</p><br>
<p>Cheilon Glacier</p><br>
<h2>Passes</h2><br>
<p>The chief passes of the Pennine Alps are:</p><br>
<h2>Nature conservation</h2><br>
<p>Some regional nature parks, like the Parco Naturale Alta Valsesia (6,511 ha - Piedmont, IT), the Riserva Naturale Mont Mars (390 ha - Aosta Valley, IT) and the Regional park of Binn valley (15,891 ha - Valais, CH), have been established on both sides of the main water divide.</p><br>
<p>The Bernese Alps  are a mountain range of the Alps, located in western Switzerland. Although the name suggests that they are located in the Berner Oberland region of the canton of Bern, portions of the Bernese Alps are in the adjacent cantons of Valais, Fribourg and Vaud, the latter being usually named Fribourg Alps and Vaud Alps respectively. The highest mountain in the range, the Finsteraarhorn, is also the highest point in the canton of Bern.</p><br>
<p>The Rhône valley separates them from the Chablais Alps in the west and from the Pennine Alps in the south; the upper Rhône valley separate them from the Lepontine Alps to the southeast; the Grimsel Pass and the Aare valley separates them from the Uri Alps in the east and from the Emmental Alps in the north; their northwestern edge is not so well defined, describing a line roughly from Lake Geneva to Lake Thun.</p><br>
<p>The Bernese Alps are drained by the river Aare and its tributary the Saane in the north, the Rhône in the south, and the Reuss in the east.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>One of the most considerable Alpine ranges, the Bernese Alps extend from the gorge of Saint-Maurice, through which the Rhone finds its way to Lake Geneva, to the Grimsel Pass or, depending on the definition, to the river Reuss (thus including the Uri Alps). The principal ridge, a chain that runs 100 km from west (Dent de Morcles) to east (Sidelhorn), whose highest peak is the Finsteraarhorn, forms the watershed between the cantons of Bern and Valais. Except for the westernmost part, it is also the watershed between the Rhine (North Sea) and the Rhone (Mediterranean Sea). This chain is not centered inside the range but lies close (10 to 15 km) to the Rhone on the south. This makes a large difference between the south, where the lateral short valleys descend abruptly into the deep trench forming the valley of the Rhone and the north, where the Bernese Alps extends through a great part of the canton of Bern (Bernese Oberland), throwing out branches to the west into the adjoining cantons of Vaud and Fribourg. There the mountains progressively become lower and disappear into the hilly Swiss Plateau.</p><br>
<p>The main chain west of Gemmi Pass consists mainly of a few large prominent summits (as the Wildhorn) slightly above 3,000 m, generally covered by glaciers. On the eastern part, the main chain became suddenly wider and the peaks reach over 4,000 m, in the most glaciated part of the Alps.</p><br>
<p>A characteristic in the orography of the Bernese Alps is, that whereas the western of that chain consists of a single series of summits with comparatively short projecting buttresses, the higher group presents a series of longitudinal ridges parallel to the axis of the main chain, and separated from each other by deep valleys that form the channels of great glaciers. Thus the Tschingel Glacier and the Kander Glacier, separate the portion of the main range lying between the Gemmi Pass and the Mittaghorn from the equally high parallel range of the Doldenhorn and Blümlisalp on its northern side. To the south the same portion of the main range is divided from the still higher parallel range whose summits are the Aletschhorn and the Bietschhorn by the Lötschental and the Lötschenlücke. To this again succeeds the deep trench through which the lower part of the Aletsch Glacier flows down to the Rhone, enclosed by the minor ridge that culminates at the Eggishorn.</p><br>
<p>It is in the central and eastern portions of the range only that crystalline rocks make their appearance; the western part is composed almost exclusively of sedimentary deposits, and the secondary ridges extending through Bern and the adjoining cantons are formed of jurassic, cretaceous, or eocene strata.</p><br>
<h2>Exploration</h2><br>
<p>The beauty of the scenery and the facilities offered to travellers by the general extension of mountain railways make the northern side of the range, the Bernese Oberland, one of the portions of the Alps most visited by tourists. Since strangers first began to visit the Alps, the names of Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen, and Interlaken have become famous. But unlike many other Alpine regions, which have been left to be explored by strangers, this region has been long visited by Swiss travellers and men of science. Among them were the brother Meyer of Aarau and Franz Joseph Hugi. They have explored most of the mountain ranges not very difficult of access, and, further than this, have attained most of the higher summits. In 1841, Louis Agassiz, with several scientific friends, established a temporary station on the Unteraar Glacier, and, along with scientific observations on the glaciers, started a series of expeditions. The works of Desor and Gottlieb Studer have been followed by several other publications that bear testimony to Swiss mountaineering activity. Notwithstanding the activity of their predecessors, the members of the English Alpine Club have found scope for further exploits, amongst which may be reckoned the first ascents of the Aletschhorn and the Schreckhorn, and the still more arduous enterprise of crossing the range by passes, such as the Jungfraujoch and Eigerjoch, which are considered amongst the most difficult in the Alps.</p><br>
<h2>Jungfrau-Aletsch area</h2><br>
<p>The Jungfrau-Aletsch area is located in the eastern Bernese Alps in the most glaciated region of the Alps. It was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (Swiss Alps Jungfrau-Aletsch) in 2001 and further expanded in 2007. Its name comes from the Aletsch Glacier and the two summits of the Jungfrau and Bietschhorn, which constitute some of the most impressive features of the site. The actual site (after the extension) includes other large glacier valleys such as the Fiescher Glacier and the Aar Glaciers.</p><br>
<h2>List of peaks</h2><br>
<p>The chief peaks of the Bernese Alps are:</p><br>
<h2>Glaciers</h2><br>
<p>Main glaciers:</p><br>
<p>Aletsch Glacier</p><br>
<p>Fiescher Glacier</p><br>
<p>Unteraar Glacier</p><br>
<p>Lower Grindelwald Glacier</p><br>
<p>Oberaletsch Glacier</p><br>
<p>Mittelaletsch Glacier</p><br>
<p>Gauli Glacier</p><br>
<p>Lang Glacier</p><br>
<p>Upper Grindelwald Glacier</p><br>
<p>Kander Glacier</p><br>
<p>Tschingel Glacier</p><br>
<p>Rosenlaui Glacier</p><br>
<p>Plaine Morte Glacier</p><br>
<p>Wildstrubel Glacier</p><br>
<p>Tsanfleuron Glacier</p><br>
<p>Diablerets Glacier</p><br>
<h2>List of passes</h2><br>
<p>The chief passes of the Bernese Alps are:</p><br>
